
Giass. 
Book. 



Ax^~ /■/ 




PROPER MGBE OF TRANSLATING % 



i 



RUACH AND PNEUMA, |t 

IN THE CE;N2SE VERSION OP 



THE &< :IPTUR£S. 
H. MEDHUB^' o M . 



»J^ 







AN INQUIRY 

INTO THE PKOPER MODE OP TBANSLATINa 

RUACH Sf PNEUMA, 

IN THE CHINESE VERSION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 

BY W. H. MEDHTTRST, SEN. 

The word for " spirit," says Kitto, (in the Hebrew Ruack, and 
in the Greek Pneuma,) is one of the most generic terms 
in the English, Hebrew, or Greek languages. A re- 
ference to the icsus loquendi, both of the Old and New 
Testaments, is necessary, in order to ascertain its Scrip- 
tural use and import. 

Its leading significations may be classed under the following: 

1. The primary sense of the term is wind. 

2. Breath, as of the mouth. 

3. The vital principle, which resides in and animates the body. 

4. An apparition. 

5. The soul ; the rational, immortal principle, by which 
man is distinguished from the brute creation. 

In this class may be included that use of the word spirit, in 
which the various emotions and dispositions of the soul 
are spoken of : such as 

The disposition, or temper, and 

The moral affections ; also 

The intellectual qualities of the soul. 

6. The race of superhuman intelligences, both good and bad. 

7. The term is applied to the Deity, in regard to the spi- 
rituality of his nature. 

8. To the Holy Spirit, as a Divine personal agent. 
The following definitions of spirit, are from Johnson. 
Spirit. 1. Breath ; wind. 

" All bodies have spirits and pneumatical parts within them ; but 
the main difference between animate and inanimate is, that the 
spirits of things animate are all continued within themselves, 
and branched in veins, as blood is ; and the spirits have also 
certain seats where the principle do reside, and whereunto the 
rest do resort ; but the spirits in things inanimate are shut in and 
cut off by the tangible parts, as air in snow." Bacon, 

" The balmy spirit of the western breeze." Anon. 



■f 



2. An immaterial substance ; an intellectual being. 

" Spirit is a substance wherein thinking, knowing, doubting-, and a 
power of moving, do subsist. Locke. 

" She is a spirit ; yet not like air or wind, 
Nor like the spirits about the heart or brain ; 

Nor like those spirits which alchy mists do find, 
When they in everything seek gold in vain : 

For she all natures under heaven doth pass, 
Being like those spirits which God's bright face do see ; 

Or like himself, whose image once she was, 
Though now, alas ! she scarce his shadow be, 

For of all forms she holds the first degree, 
That are to gross material bodies knit ; 
Yet she herself is bodyless and free, 
And though confined is almost infinite." Davizs. 

" I shall depend upon your constant friendship ; like the trust we 
have in benevolent spirits, who, though we never see or hear them, 
we think are constantly praying for us." Pope. 

'* If we seclude space, there will remain in the world but matter 
and mind, or body and spirit." Watts. 

" You are all of you pure spirits. I don't mean that you have not 
bodies that want meat and drink, and sleep and cloathing ; but that 
all that deserves to be called you, is nothing else but spirit." Law. 

3. The soul of man. 

?' The spirit shall return unto God that gave it." Jiihle. 

*' Look, who comes here ? a grave unto a soul, 

Holding th' eternal spirit 'gainst her will 

In the vile prison of afflicted breath." Shakspeare. 

" Everything that you call yours, beside this spirit, is but like 

your cloathing. Law, 

4. An apparition. 

li They were terrified, and supposed that they had seen a spirit "Bible* 
'* Perhaps you might see the image^ and not the glass ; the former 

appearing like a spirit in the air." Bacon. 

" Whilst young, preserve his tender mind from all impressions of 

spirits and goblins in the dark." Locke. 

5. Temper ; habitual disposition of mind. 

" A malicious and revengeful spirit" Tillotson. 

6. Ardour ; courage ; elevation ; vehemence of mind. 

<s The cavaliers beganfo recover their spirits." Swift. 

7. Genius ; vigour of mind. 

8. Turn of mind ; power of mind, moral or intellectual. 

9. Intellectual powers distinct from the body. 

10. Sentiment ; perception. 

11. Eagerness ; desire. 

12. Man of activity ; man of life, fire, and enterprise. 

13. Persons distinguished by qualities of mind. (Obsolete.) 



1 1 <- 



A°$ 



^ 3 

14. That which gives vigour or cheerfulness to the mind ; 
the purest part of the body, bordering, says Sydenham, 
on immateriality. In this meaning it is commonly writ* 
ten with the plural termination. 

" When I sit and tell 
The warlike feats I 've done, his spirits fly out 
Into my story." Shakspeare. 

" It was the time when gentle night began 
T' endrain with sleep the busy spirits of man." Cowl. 

15. Characteristical likeness ; essential qualities. 

" Italian pieces will appear best in a room where the windows are 
high, because they are commonly made to a descending light, 
which of all other doth set off men's faces in their truest spirit." 

Wotton. 

16. Any thing eminently pure and refined. 

" Nor doth the eye itself, 
That most pure spirit of sense, behold itself." Shakspeare. 

17. That which hath power or energy. 

" There is in wine a mighty spirit, that will not be congealed." South. 

18. An inflammable liquor raised by distillation : as brandy. 

19. It may be observed, that in the poets, spirit was a mono- 
syllable, and therefore was often written sprite. 

Spiritual. 1. Distinct from matter; immaterial; incorporeal. 

2. Mental ; intellectual. 

3. Not gross ; refined from external things ; rela- 
tive only to the mind. 

Spirituality. 1. Incorporeity ; immateriality ; essence dis- 
tinct from matter. 

2. Intellectual nature. 

3. Acts independent of the body ; pure acts 

of the soul ; mental refinement. 
Spiritually. Without corporeal grossness ; with attention 

to things purely intellectual. 
Spirited. Lively ; vivacious ; full of fire. 
Spiritless. Dejected ; low ; deprived of vigour ; wanting 

courage ; depressed. 
The question to be solved is, what is the best Chinese term, 

which, according to the usus loquendi of that people, is 

most adapted for expressing the above senses. The terms 

proposed are two, viz. pfl Shin and ||| Ling. In order 
to ascertain in what way these are used, we cannot do 
better than analyze the combinations and quotations 
which are adduced under these two words, in the Chinese 
Imperial Thesaurus : if any are not satisfied with this au- 
thority, we have no further argument with them. 



A translation of the quotations adduced in the Imperial The- 
saurus, under the head $$ Shin, has already been publish- 
ed by the writer of the present article, in a tract entitled 
" The true meaning of the word Shin "; it will not be 
necesssary to go over again all that has been there ad- 
duced ; we shall now merely analyze and arrange what 
is necessary for our present purpose, and refer the reader 
to the above-named tract for further information. The 
numbers herein adduced allude to the order in which the 
quotations are arranged in the tract referred to. 

Analysis of the combinations given in the Imperial 
Thesaurus under the word Shin, including a few 
quotations from other works. 

I. Shin in the abstract is used for the soul, or vital principle. 
When the new-born babe comes to the gate of life, as it 

falls to the ground, it becomes a 35 ipp living soul. 165. 
That in which men and brutes [p] ^gf jfj^ resemble each 
other is the living principle ; that in which they d$L ^j 
J£^ differ is the outward form. 130. 

II. It is used for the rational soul, mind, or spirit. 

We may sometimes J?L §0 envelope the soul in mystery, 
and cut off our connection with external things. 168. 

The f§ heart and )fl* mind are said to be oppressed by 
excessive labour, and may be cleansed by religion. 96. 

By maintaining perfect stillness, ^ jjljl the mind is pre- 
served in equanimity. 14. 

The operations of the Divine Being are said to be as rapid 
as the ?ji! jjj$ flight of mind. 22. 

Our fl|l minds are said Jp| to fly about after whatever we 
see. ib. 

The mind J^ jjjlfl ^ mounts aloft in its aspirations. 30. 

Every kind of rational energy combines to )j5£ f^ consti- 
tute the human mind. 191. 

His composition moved the ^ ff$ intelligent mind of the 
Emperor. 176. 

The tendencies of the J^, j|$ minds of men, &c. 156. 



To ^rf |$ control one's mind, in obedience to nature. 23. 
Dwelling alone, I allow ^fl* my mind to wander. 173^ 

To 3p fE sootne one ' s p arents is tne 1>est wa y t0 ^ iti* 

quiet one's own mind. 33. 
To ^ jjjljJ withdraw one's mind in meditative reflection. 43. 
By i^ |A exhilarating the spirit^ to retard the approach of 

old age. 44. 

The sound of music ?$? $$ exhilarates one^spirit. 47. 

The morning dew ^^exhilarates one's spirit, ib. 

He moved his hearers ^ f Jp and electrified their spirits, ib. 

The thought of parting H^fljl scares my spirit. 178. 

J§ ll^ Jtjflp Wine confuses the spirit. 51. 

Joy or sorrow ^ ffp disturbs the spirit, ib. 

Sleep has pf fj$? tranquillized my spirit. 190. 

To 5f jjp compose one's spirit in the inner apartments. 87. 

To jfjtj |lp cause one's spirit to be satisfied with delight. 141. 

Recline on a high pillow, BE |Ep and felicitate your spirit. 89. 

Your elegant language ^ ]jj!p delights my spirit. 169. 

If you -ffc fiff give rest to your spirit, your spirit will re- 
main with you. 112. 

I ^ jjjlp hold in my spirit and still myself in silence. 164. 

The one breath of nature ^ jjj^ perforates my spirit. 146. 

III. Shin is used for the animal spirits. 

The f|f j[{$J animal spirits follow the dictates of reason. 32. 

The )fjt[ jjj|j| animal spirits of lovers accord to each other, ib. 

Waking up from sleep, we feel our ^ jfitjl animal spirits 
invigorated, ib. 

The approach of evening $|§|fl* freezes upoue's spirit. 28. 

To [iff jjjlfj nourish the animal spirits and promote longe- 
vity. 93. 

The harp J|j ^fj causes one's spirits to return to rest. 113. 
The observers ^ fl^ felt their spirits excited. 187. 
He was ||f jjj$ sparing of his spirit, aijd thus promoted his 
happiness. 90. 



Let us give up restraint and fjfc jjj$ relax our spirits. 180. 

IV. It is used for the spirit of anything. 

tl| jplF To perpetuate the spirit of one's poetry. 34. 
fU \fi$ To express the very spirit of a thing, ib. 

V. It is used for essences. 

Moisture is the yjC flfl essence of water. 25. 

??t W The essence of China root. 143. 

Hi jjjljl The essence of fermented liquor. 188. 

VI. It is used for anything that appears glistening in in- 
animate objects. 

The fpf f iff animated gleam that sparkles in the gem, 32. 

VII. itf is used for the animation of a picture. 

{|| S$ The communicating of animation is coupled with 
'Bg j|3 the conveying of expression, in a picture. 

VIII. The meaning of Shin in the abstract sense, may be 
ascertained by considering its antitheses, correlates , and 
synonymes. 

1. The antitheses of Shin are J$ and qffl g 

a. 5^ Hing, form. The Chinese say that Shin means that 
which is without form. Premare in his list of characters of 
opposite signification, has }j5$ Shin, spirit ; Jj^ Hing, form.* 

As an instance of this antithesis we quote the following 
from the Thesaurus : " In your food and clothing be care- 
ful to sustain your whole person, and thus cause both Jj^ 
body and jjjj]3 spirit to maintain a near connection with 
each other, that the 3p£ external and gg internal man may 
be mutually assisting." 

Again, "Men only think of nourishing their }f^ bodies, and 
do not think of cherishing their jjjlp spirits : when they 
have no regard for the jjjljl spirit, and only think of the 
: f\? body, it is because they do not understand that the 
Jf^ body is merely the carriage which conveys the fjjlf? 

* Premare says, antithesis in Chinese style denotes, either what is 
strictly antithetical, or it has reference to a simple correspondence 
or correlation. 



spirit. When the flfl spirit departs, men die ; as when 
IJJ the carriage is broken, the 4 §§ horses gallop away." 204. 

That which the J$ body stores up is called the f$ spirit. 111. 

In the following sentences the above word3 are used anti- 
thetically : 

To '§? J$ trouble one's spirit, contrasted with wearying 
one's 5p body. 15, 

To ^ jflfjl hold in our spirits, contrasted with ]E jf? keep- 
ing erect our bodies. 29. 

To £ij^ |$ preserve one's mental energies, contrasted with 
^ J§» maintaining one's bodily health. 107. 

To ij£ STl$ settle one's spirit } contrasted with JjJJ gg com- 
posing one's body. 157. 

To j]X. W re ^ ease one's spirit from the world, contrasted 
with ^ J^ $U 3t? <$$ making one's body like a cast-off 
garment. 180. 

b. Another antithesis of ftp Shin is ^wuh, matter. 

The ^ grosser anima is $j% matter, and the §|[ finer soul 
is \]0 spirit. 

2. The correlates of Shin, in the abstract, are JR j|r S]B 

a. J|| Kwei, when used in the abstract, means the grosser 
inferior, darker, and more contracted part of f|f| spirit. 

The antithetical character of these words may be seen in 
the following quotations from the u Inquiry." 

" The JJ^ 5^ soul of the superior material principle is jjjlp 
Shin : the |jg fljj anima of the inferior material principle 
is Jj^ kwei." Inquiry, p. 94. 

" The M ^ f$J expandings of the breath of nature constitute 
the jjj^ Shin ; J£ J§j| its contactings, the J^kwei." ib.p. 94. 

<{ W Shin is the production of the g^j superior material prin- 
ciple : ^ kwei is the production of the j^ inferior ma- 
terial principle." ib. p. 95. 

" With respect to man, Sj| ^ J^ f^f the soul and finer spirit 



constitute the Shin, j^ |J| |§J % the grosser spirit and 
the substance, the Kwei." ib. p. 99. 
" *5t J& W Shin is man's soul, $]| |^ ^ and Kwei his ani. 

ma." ib. p. 95. 
" The ^ more ethereal spirit is the $$ <1 MI fulness of 
the Shin, and jfj| the grosser is JlL^lfiSi the fulness 
of the Kwei." ib. p. 95. 
h. Another correlate of f[$ Shin is ^ K'he, the breath, 

spirit^ or spiritual energy. 
J$. B. The similarity between f{{| Shin in the abstract, and 
^^ K'he consists in their being both used for spiritual ener- 
gies ; and the difference between them consists in the former 
sometimes possessing intelligence, and the latter never. 
" Whatever in heaven and earth has a jg^j k'he passing 

through it, is called Jj^ Shin." See Inquiry, page 102. 
u In the production of all things, there is nothing divested 
of this ^ K'he, H {ft, ^ 'jjftl £ $£ & which K'he is 
the fulness of the Shin." ib. 101. 
" The J^ |^ Kwei Shin (or expanding and contracting 
spirits of nature,) are nothing more than this ^ k'he ; that 
which contracts and expands, recedes and advances, is this 
^K k'he. The ^ k'he of man is constantly in connection 
with the ^ k'he of heaven and earth." ib. 100. 
" The J^| jfrtjl Kwei Shin is something like the jfjfl ||f spiri- 
tual efficaciousness, that resides in the ^ k'he." ib. 100. 
The following is from the Thesaurus : 
" ^ f$ To cleanse one's spirit 9 coupled with ^ jfa nourish- 
ing one's k'he." 110. 
" 1^ US Spiritual energies, contrasted with ^ f|| mental 

perceptions." 
11 f^The active spirit, and J^| the quiescent spirit, both refer 
to the "^ Jfi J?^ ^ spiritual energies of heaven and earth ; 
the names are two, but the thing is one." 103. 
c. Another correlate of fjfe Shin ia 2S Hwan, the soul. 



The Chinese speak of a »)|[ finer spirit, and a 6^ grosser 
spirit, both which are said to be fjyj§g spiritual influ- 
ences. §jj| The grosser spirit is the §H influence or effica- 
ciousness that attaches itself to the f|| body ; and the ^ 
finer soul is the f$ spirit or energy that attaches itself to 
the gj|j breath. ftj^ The grosser spirit is the inferior, and 
Sj§ the finer spirit is the superior, principle in man. 
The following is from the Thesaurus. 
/H jjj$ To employ one's spirit t coupled with j^f J$| making 

good use of one's soul. 123. 

d. Another correlate of jjjjfl Shin is J\j) sin, the mind or heart- 
The words j(£ heart and |l|l mind are synonymous, in 
respect to both referring to the human mind and thought ; 
but they differ, in respect to the latter being used of an in- 
visible being, and the former not. The Imperial Diction- 
ary has the following sentence, under the word j(£> Sin. 

" /l& The heart is ^ /^ ^ the sovereign of the body, and 
W 5^1 *C i the lord of the spirit and intelligence, i. e. 
of the intellectual powers." 

The following is from the Thesaurus : 

pp i(j$ The spirit liberated, and §f j\$ the mind set free. 31. 

aS wt W T° move lhe animal spirits, coupled with l|fj Jt£* 
$J5 influencing the thoughts of the mind. 32. 

Wc II fft W To purify the animal spirits, coupled with JfjJ 
$m IflJ ^ expanding the mind. 32. 

?K jE$ To penetrate the spiritual, coupled with fij^ j(£ re- 
flecting on the mental. 92. 

e. The other correlates of jjjlfl Shin are /§» sze, the thoughts. 
tUfe S /& Mr T °l eanse tne heart and ?mftd, coupled with 

Si 3? JP J§ settm g aside disorderly thoughts. 96. 
1. jjj^l To exhaust one's spirit, coupled with ^ Jjg» expend- 
ing one's thoughts. 97. 

To enlarge the mmc?, coupled with Jgt /§» expand- 
ing the thoughts. 124. 



10 

/• ^£ ^> Views and intentions. 

y^Z jjjlp To cleanse one's spirit, coupled with ^p ||r compos- 
insr one's views. 110. 

J|^ ff^ To express one's mind, coupled with ^ ^ exhibit- 
ing one's views. 152. 

£T- S?S ^he, tne w ^- 

?H ^P jfl$ The spirits congealed, and Jgf ^C $> the w«7Z 

undivided. 28. 
$tt fj$ To harmonize one's spirit, coupled with :§J 7^ fos- 
tering one's bent of mind. 85. 
k. fff Tsing, the feelings. 
$$ jp The apmf rambling, and §fe fjff the feelings going 

abroad. 40. 
i. *£fe Sing, nature, disposition. 
^J jjj^ To soothe one's spirit, coupled with $fc ^ fostering 

one's disposition. 85. 
ISfl* To ad J ust one ' s ow * ma * spinteand $f ft regain 

one's natural disposition. 174. 
j. gj Ke } self. 
^ Jj^i To hold one's spirit, and $C EL g ive repose to one's 

self. 159. 
k. If£ c h* n > P ure abstractedness. 
Ejffftfj To promote one's spirituality, coupled with ^ BC 

maintaining one's abstractedness of mind. 93. 
J. $J? Meaou, mysterious, wonderful. 
X?# To enter the m V sterious ^ and A#$ approach the 

wonderful. 1. *=» it 

XlftT enter the my sterious > and # 1 P ass throu § h 

the abstruse. 

m. Ushing, sageiike; not to be comprehended by com- 
mon persons. 

He was |g wg-eZtAre and |f fecn^e in his intelligence. 60. 

When China is prosperous, it has §| sagelike and jjjf •!*- 
scrutably intelligent princes, ib. 



11 

From the above it appears, that Shin when used in the 
abstract means the living principle, the human soul, mind 
and spirit, the animal spirits, and the spiritual essence and 
animation of anything. Its antitheses are body and mat- 
ter, and its correlates are the grosser and more contracted 
part of spirit, the spiritual energies, the soul, the mind, 
thought, intention, will, feelings, disposifion, and a man's self, 
together with abstractedness of mind, mysteriousness, and 
inscrutability of intelligence. We conceive that the above 
meanings and applications of the word, for every one of 
which there is good authority, are sufficient to prove, be- 
yond the power of contradiction, that the radical and essen- 
tial meaning of Shin is spirit. It has been said, that this 
controversy is a quest iou of evidence : if so, then it. is 
settled, as the above evidence is unquestionable and su- 
perabundant. 

We now come to the consideration of the meaning attach- 
ed to Shin, when used in the concrete ; in doing which we 
shall see that the term is often applied to the manes of 
ancestors, to ghosts and hobgoblins ; that its correlates, 
in the concrete, are spectres and apparitions, with all kinds 
of aerial beings, leading us to conclude that the word bears 
the same general reference to spirits in the concrete, as we 
have seen that it does in the abstract. 

I. Shin in the concrete refers to the manes of men. 

The following combinations are to be met with in the 

Thesaurus. 
&i K <1 f$ The manes of Fang-fung. 220. 
Ws p7 |# The manes of E-yang. 223. 
TpT ftp The manes of Hwang-te. 154. 
31 H W The manes of Tae-t'hae. 226. 
$5 "W f $ The manes of Woo-seu. 240. 
j§| % t& The manes of Tsze-koo. 224. 
'ft'EErE: UJl f$ The manes of the three sons of Chuh- 

wang. 210. 

^ |fe ffl The ™ anes of Foo-yu. 
^ 3: |$ The manes of Tsob-wang. 148. 
See also the reference to 3^ 3E ^ ^ the manes of Wan- 
wang. Theology of the Chinese, p. 218. 



12 

The reader is referred to the opinions of Choo-foo-fsze, 
regarding the manes of ancestors. See Theology of the Chi- 
nese, pages 183-186. 

In the above, and many more that might be adduced, it 

cannot even be pretended that jjj$ Shin, in the connection re- 
ferred to, means the god of the persons mentioned j but the 
ghost, spirit, shade, or manes, of those individuals, i. e. 
the spiritual part of them after death, which is^ supposed 
to hover about the tomb, or the ancestorial tablet,* to receive 
the offerings of their descendants. 

II. Shin is used in the concrete for ghosts and spectres. 

The following is from the Thesaurus. 

# 'Hk tB f£ ^T ^ ^ i^ Ghosts and hobgoblins are 

vague and uncertain things, appearing as if they were, and 

yet as if they were not. 214. 
fit ![l$ Ma I & A> Looking out for apparitions, he saw the 

traces of some fairies. 78. 
See also the references to 1$jf fl^ wandering ghosts. 40. 
Hll jjfljl Mischievous ghosts. 144. 
5R W V a P our y spectres. 79. 
H£ f$ Shadowy sprites. 136. 
Choo-foo-tsze has some remarks about ghosts and spectres, 

who go under the general name of |j| |$ Kwei-shin. See 

Theology of the Chinese, p. p. 166, 172. 

We would request the reader's attention also to the subject 
of ff§ jfi$ exorcising evil spirits, Inquiry, page 106 ; to the J|s 
j|$ demon of drought, ib. 107 ; which is a %^^$k[ 
devilish and monstrous thing, ib. page 108 ; to the irregular 
spirits called u $j^ ^ HI !§§ le-mei-wang-leang, superhuman 
and monstrous appearances, of an infernal or diabolical 
nature ; mountain fairies or elves, malevolent and diabolical' 
spirits "j all of which are considered a species of Shin. 

To these may be added the JfjfJ J^ hoo hwo, a kind of 
devil, (according to Morrison) which is a ^ jjjl^ mis- 
chievous Shin. ib. 110. 

Should any object that by thus pointing out the application 



13 

of the word Shin to evil spirits, we damage it for our own 
use in the sense of the Holy Spirit. ; we reply, that we are 
thereby shewing its exact conformity to the word Pneuma, 
as used in the New Testament, where the phrases Pneu- 
mata akatharta and Pneuma hagion are found in fre- 
quent and close proximity. 

As we did with regard to this term in the abstract, we shall 
now proceed to point out the meaning of jf|^ Shin in the 
concrete, by referring to its antitheses and correlates. 
III. The antitheses of Shin in the concrete are ^ -% fijj 

a. pj The people, a3 ; 

JH ]jj^l To keep together the spirits, contrasted with ]J| J^- 
keeping the people together. 76. 

^f} |j| fl$ To ask about spiritual beings, contrasted with 
sfi 1^0 5HF Hi not en q uir i n g a ^ ter the interests of the 
people. 2. 

^ jjlFp To weary spiritual beings, contrasted with ^ ^ 
distressing the people. 15. 

Tsze-loo asked about serving the ^ )pJ Kwei Shins, when 
Confucius said, ^ $jj 5fS ^ ^ f £ Ifl J^i if we are 
not able to serve men, how can we serve the spirits ? 
(called also Jjj$ Shins by the Commentator.) See Theo- 
logy of the Chinese, p. 36. 

Men and spirits differ in belonging severally to the visible 
and invisible world, with the beginning and end of things, 
ib. 38. 

The emperor is said to be g )jj)fJ ^ 3b tne l° r & of the hun- 
dred spirits, and J^ ^ 3c "$? lne P arent of the people, 
Quotations from Thesaurus. 7. 

b. Another antithesis of Shin in the concrete is fy demons, 
not necessarily bad. 

P]EJ W Like spirits, contrasted with ;pf y^ like demons. 8. 
ffifr jj$ Fierce spi?*its, contrasted with IE -^ correct c?e- 
?nons. 116. 



To honour spirits, contrasted with =p. ^ serving 
demons. 10. 



14 

Snake-like sprites, contrasted with ^p jj^ ox-like 
imps. 36. 
/R HP itl* The %>m* of the stone image, contrasted with W 
-j- ^ the demon of the banian tree. 

c. Another antithesis of jjjtf Shin, in the concrete is p^ K'he, 
the spirits of earth. 

^£ ffp The spirits of heaven, contrasted with Jjjj jjjt|l the 

spirits o f e ar th . Passim. 
3I>C Sf$ The *P*>*/ of the waters, contrasted with \1\ jjjjj the 

spirit of the land. 179. 

P. jf{* the upper spirits, contrasted with ~JC jjjjj the lower 

spirits. 

d. fllf Shin in the concrete is also used antithetically with 
beings of a higher order. 

Hfr f($ The united spirits, contrasted with — J|? the three 

imperial ones. 88. 
5ilHL )W The mother spirit (earth), contrasted with ff| JQ 

the great original (heaven). 81. 
M< (Pj Jfi* To influence intelligent spirits, contrasted with 

85 yC $L moving heaven and earth. 62. 
$$J $JJ jj^ Knowledge resembling that of spiritual beings, 

contrasted with £H j#\ ^ benevolence like heaven. 8. 
Mi $0 It Signified like spiritual beings, contrasted with 

ife. 3<H fcj glorious like the swh. ib. 
$£ jjjl{j To rely on spiritual beings, contrasted with jj[f[ ^ 

being obedient to Heaven. 63. 

jjjtfi To present offerings to all the spirits, contrasted 

with ^ TJy — • performing rites towards the great one. 147. 
ff= flfj To do obeisance to the spirits, contrasted with S§)| 

iffiT paying court to the Supreme. 98. 

Should any argue that in some of the latter contrasts, 
the dignity of the Shins is rather established than other- 
wise ; we only request them to suspend their judgment till 
we come to the discussion of B Ling, and then they will 



l»Y> 



15 

see the very same collocations employed with regard to 
that word ; and yet our opponents have proposed Ling as 
the best translation which ihey can find for spirit : if 
Ling, therefore notwithstanding ita high associations, means 
only spirit, it is clear that Shin simply on account of simi- 
lar associations can be proved to intimate nothing more. 
IV. We now come to the correlates of Shin, in the concrete, 

which we shall find to be §| ^ fjj || Jpt Bfj |$ ^ 

§8 E\ and a few others. 

a. f|f Ling, intelligent beings. 

$j^ f ^ The rambling abroad of spirits, coupled with g* 
/L 13 tne mounting aloft of the nine invisible intelli- 
gences. 248. 

jL W The nine spiritual ones, coupled with :E~ §g the 
three intelligent\ones. 139. 

^L f$ To be equal to spiritual beings, coupled with ||H. |g 
being connected with invisible intelligences 161. 

jjjf^jjjfll To influence spiritual beings, coupled with ^ 
moving inmsible intelligences. 163. 

j^ f|±( The six spirits (presiding over the cardinal points), 
coupled with J{ §g the eight intelligences (controlling 
the winds). 41. r 

For more of the same kind, see the analysis of Ling, under 
Section, V. 

b. ijw Tsing, fairies ; genii. 

iH 41 1$ To repress the ghosts which haunt the dwelling, 
coupled with ]|| [if fj| keeping down the fairies that 
wander about the hills. 166. 

jIH f$ The spirits of the mountains, coupled with J| f^ 
the genii of the stars. 6. 

c. ty\ Selen, genii. 

iH ^ 5$ apparitions in the looking-glass, coupled with 
^fC ^ |l[/ain^ seen in the water. 248. 

d. 4||Kwae, elves ; hobgoblins. 



16 

7|v W Sylvan sprites, coupled with ^fv |§ aquatic elves. 170. 
H| f[^ The sprite of the Tsin country, coupled with ^ ^ 

a monstrous elf. 84. 
e. 5|£ Chin, a kind of spiritual genii. 
U |p The various sprites acted as guards, coupled with 

gg IpL all the ethereal ones being arranged in order. 7. 

See Morrison's Syllabic Dictionary, page 63. 
/. EpJ Ming, intelligent beings. 
^JP W To hold intercourse with spirits, coupled with §§ f^j 

satisfying intelligent beings. 83. 
§". "Sp Moo, dame. 
Jg£ jjflf The spirit that controls the waves, coupled with ]$j|| 

•Q: the afa^e that directs the winds. 179. 
h. 3([" Neu, nymph. 
3E $4 W The genius that controls the night, coupled with 

Til * !>V tne n '!/ m ph that superintends the flowers. 242. 
i. §g Shing, genius. 
^/L W The nine days spirit (poverty), coupled with ^f 

&fp §!? the genius of a thousand years, (prosperity). 54. 
HI ffl$ The spWtf of money, coupled with J§ |g the genius 

of wine. 19. 
j. j^ She, lady. 
]j||: |^ The genii of the withes, coupled with j^g jj^ the 

Zac?2/ of the moon. 199. 
k. Shin is used correlatively with a few other terms, as ; 
fU f$ The excellent spirit t coupled with Jl[ jjj|[ the im- 
perial manes. 94. 
J\ jjjp The eight marvellous ones, coupled with /^ |gg the 

eight bright ones. 16. 
^ f||3 The eight spiritual ones, coupled with nfcl !Jf| the 

seven splendid ones. ib. 
^p£ jjjlp The sprites from the southern region, coupled with 

§111 Jffl the v^Zc? g-ee.se from the northern wastes. 184.* 

* Flights of wild geese passing o?er a region by night, are supposed 
by the ignorant Chinese, to be sprites flying through the air. See 
under Ling, section I. 



17 

[If f^ The invisible sprite of the bill, coupled with JJC ^§p 

the e£/js& resident of the waters. 100. 

Such are the meanings and usages of Shin, according 
to native authors. In the abstract, it undoubtedly means 
spirit; in the concrete, we have shewn that it is applied 
to and associated with spiritual beings, of every kind. 
It is argued, however, that the beings worshipped by the 
Chinese are all called Shins, and as a being worshipped 
by any one must be his god, we ought therefore, in such 
instances, to translate the word Shin by god. We admit 
the premises, but deny the conclusion. The beings wor- 
shipped by the Chinese are all called Jljfp Shins, but they are 
also called Jgg Lings ; the latter term M claimed by those 
who advocate Shin in the sense of God, as the best term 
they can find foi spirit. The objects of Chinese worship, 
when vievjed as such, are called by themselves Lings ; but 
Ling, our opponents say, means spirit ; therefore the objects 
of Chinese worship are spirits. The Roman Catholics wor- 
ship saints and the Virgin ; but they do not call them gods : 
were any to say, that the Roman Catholics worship many 
gods, he would in their estimation, and according" to the 
language employed by them to designate the beings they 
worship, be doing them an injustice ; and were any one to 
argue that, because the Roman Catholics worship saints^ he 
is warranted in taking the name which they employ for such 
objects, to designate God, and preach that there is but one 
saint, in order to put down polytheism, he would be doing 
his own cause an injustice, and be designating the being 
whom he considers the one God by a wrong term. 

It has been argued further, that the Chinese call their 
idols Shins, and it would be a misnomer for us to call them 
spirits ; because said idols are made of wood, and wooden 
spirits would be a contradiction in terms. To this we reply, 
that the phrase vjooden gods is quite as illogical as wooden 
spirits. The divinity whom men worship* is no more made 
of wood, than is the spirit whom they worship. The phrase 
wooden gods may occur, but it is evident, that it is used by 
metonymy for the wooden images of gods ; and it would be 
quite as appropriate to speak of the wooden images of spirits, 
or of saints, as of gods. The Chinese themselves never 

attach the epithet Tumuli to )0 Shin, whether we like to 
interpret the latter in the sense of gods or spirits. They 



18 

have the phrase /fc Hf^ miih shin, but it means the spirit 
presiding over wood, not a wooden spirit. When translating 
the phrase « make us gods," in the New Testament, our Chi- 
nese assistants were stumbled. It mattered not, they said, 
what term we employed for God, whether Shin or Shang-te' 
or any other term, the idea of making such a being was ab- 
surd ; what did we mean by such an expression ? We re- 
plied, that the meaning of the speakers was, "make for us the 
images of gods." Well then, said they, let it be so expressed ; 
for making gods is unintelligible. In all such cases, 
therefore, in order to convey a correct idea to the Chinese, 
the word should be rendered the image of the being referred to. 

The most stupid idolater among the Chinese never sup- 
poses that the image he worships is a Shin ; it represents a 
Shin, a Shin resides in it, or possesses it, but the wood is 
not Shin. Hence they talk of the Shin coming when the 
image is dedicated, and of the Shin departing, when the 
image is no longer worshipped. They also say, tha', at the 
end of the year, all the Shins go up to pay court, and give 
an account of themselves to the Supreme, but the images do 
not go. The images remain behind, when the Shins are 
supposed to be absent; hence the images are not, in their 
estimation, the Shins. 

If we turn now from Chinese authors to foreign writers 
on the language, we shall find almost every European Sino- 
logue of note translating Shin by spirit. Morrison has 
translated it thus, in different parts of his Dictionary a great 
number of times, and the first meaning he gives to it, under 
the word, is spirit; and under 'Spirit', the very first word is 
Shin. In his version of the Scriptures, he has also fre- 
quently translated spirit by Shin, even when referring to 
unclean spirits, and the spirit of a beast that goeth down- 
wards. This is the more remarkable, because having adopt- 
ed Shin as the rendering of God in the said version, he was 
bound, in order to be consistent, to avoid rendering spirit by 
the same term, if lie could possibly help it; and yet the 
force of conviction on his own mind, that Shin meant spirit, 
even in the concrete, was so strong, that he has frequently 
translated spirit thereby. Premare, in his Notitia Lingua? 
Sinicai, has invariably rendered Shin by spirit. So also 
Remusat, in his Elemens de La Grammaire Chinoise ; La 
Charme, in his translation of the Book of Odes ; De Guignes, 
in his Historical Classic ; Amiot, in his Appendix to the 
same; Visdelou, in his Notices on the Book of Diagrams j 



19 

(see also his opinion of the phrase Kwei Shin, on page 124 
of i he Inquiry.) To the above may be added the testimony, 
of Peres Martin, Trig&ut and Duhalde ; Dr. Milne, Mr. Collie 
Sir G. Staunton and M. Pauthier ; above all, we would ap- 
peal to M. Stanislas Julien, unquestionably the best Chinese 
scholar in Europe, who invariably renders Shin in the con- 
crete by spirit. (See his Le Livre des Recompenses.) 

We lay claim, therefore, to the word Shin, as the best and 
most suitable translation of spirit, which the Chinese lan- 
guage affords, in all its senses, except that of wind, to which 

however it is allied through its correlative jg^ k'he ; and we 
call upon those who contend against our so using the word 
to prove that it does not mean spirit. This we know they 
can r*ever do ; we therefore rest secure in our point, and 
demand from the Bible and Missionary Societies their sanc- 
tion and aid, in employing the word Shin, according to its 
legitimate sense. The only argument, if it can be called 
one, which we have heard, against our employing Shin 
for spirit, is, that Shin is the only term which our opponents 
can find in the language for God. If such be the case, and 
if, as we have proved, it means spirit, they ought to abandon 
the use of it in the former sense ; because they never can 
maintain that there is but one spirit, without outraging truth 
at every step they go. If it be really so, that they can find 
no other term in the language for God, they ought to trans- 
fer the word, and not seek to promote the cause of the God of 
truth by "uttering what, according to the meaning of the term, 
as used and understood by the Chinese, amounts to a falsity". 
Having shewn the perfect propriety of using Shin for 
spirit, we shall now proceed to point out the inadequacy of 
the term for spirit proposed by our opponents, which we 
cannot, we conceive, accomplish better than by giving the 
following — 

Analysis of the quotations in the Imperial 
Thesaurus, under the word §|| Ling. 

The combinations in which the word Ling is found in the 
Chinese Imperial Thesaurus amount to 280, each of which 
is illustrated by one or more quotations. In order to give 
a connected view of these, we shall arrange them under the 
following heads, according to the different shades of meaning 
attached to the word, in the various quotations : these are 

I. intelligent or ingenious ; allied to which is the idea of 

II. that which is excellent, beautiful, and happy : then follows 



20 

III. intelligence in the abstract ; IV. intelligence in the con- 
crete, applied to visible beings ; as well as to V. invisible 
ones. Connected with the idea of invisible intelligences is 
the conceptionfof that which is VI. mysterious, and VII. awe- 
inspiring ; to which we may add their VIII. efficaciousness and 
IX. influence : then follows the idea X. of light, ancjf the 
XI. objects affording it ; as well as XII. celestial signs and 
XIII. fabulous animals. The above, with a few combina- 
tions, used as names of men and things, will be found to 
include all that the Thesaurus has exhibited on the subject. 
A careful comparison of these heads, and of the quotations 
under each, will enable the reader to see that the prevailing 
idea of Ling is that of intelligence, not necessarily incorporeal. 
A reference to what has already been adduced on the 
word 5$ Shin, will lead to the conviction that the prevailing 
idea of that word is incorporeal not necessarily intelligent. 
in a tract entitled "The true meaning of the word Shin," 
already referred to, the quotations were divided into two 
sections, those which exhibited ffjlp Shin in the abstract, and 
those in the concrete form. With respect to the former, the 
writer expressed himself very decidedly, that the word Shin 
means spirit, or something nearly allied thereto ; and gave 
utterance to his conviction that the passages quoted under 
the first head could not be translated by substituting the 
word God or Divinity for spirit, without offering the great ;%l 
violence to the Chinese language. He retains that convic- 
tion ; and he now calls upon all those who persist in using 
the word Shin for God, to translate those passages upon 
their principles, and make sense of them ; if they cannot, — 
and if they cannot rebut the argument, that according to the 
sense attached to Shin in three-eighths of the passages 
quoted in the Chinese Thesaurus under that word, it means 
spirit, and especially the human spirit, let them not stand 
up before God and man, and tell the Chinese that there is 
only one Shin. 

In all the instances in which Shin occurred in the abstract, 
in the above article, it was not suggested by the writer that 
any other Chinese term might be substituted for it ; had he 
been called upon to suggest one. he would probably have 
pointed to some of those which he has shewn to be its cor- 
relates and synonymes, in the former part of this paper ; 
though he believes, that in such acceptation there is no other 
Chinese word, exactly equivalent to Shin in the abstract. 



21 

With regard to the second class of quotations, in which 
Shin i3 used in the concrete, the writer rendered it manes, 
ghost, spectie, sprite, fairy, elf, genius, and spirit ; and sug- 
gested that if the Chinese were called upon to say the same 
things in other words, they would use ^ kwei, jJ^J yaou, 
£§j *kwae, ^ tsing, &c. ; and in all those passages in 
which the writer had employed spirit as the rendering of 
Shin, (of course he meant in the concrete), the Chinese 

would if required., use fU Ling as the substitute. From 
which the conclusion was drawn, that in rendering their 
books, and in endeavouring to express the ideas which they 
wished to convey, we ought not to use the word God, as 
the translation of Shin in the concrete. 

In the same opinion the writer remains. In the abstract, 
(with reference to the mind, thought, soul, animal spirits, &c.) 
Shin and Ling are not synonymous, and cannot be used the 
one for the other ; in the concrete, (with reference to invisible 
intelligences,) they are nearly synonymous. In this latter 
sense, "Ling means in a great measure what Shin means, 
and Shin imports what Ling imports. They could be used 
the one for the other, without impediment, and are so fre- 
quently. There is little difference between them, very much 
like ghost and spirit in the English language." This simi- 
larity of Shin and Ling, when referring to invisible intelli- 
gences, is deserving of especial notice ; and instead of 
finding it called in question, we shall see that it is establish- 
ed by the quotations which follow. This striking resem- 
blance militates most strongly against the employment of 
Shin in the concrete for a god or gods ; and establishes the 
position that it means a spirit, or spirits. This is an argu- 
ment which the advocates of Shin in the sense of God can- 
not controvert ; — at least those of them who use Ling in the 
concrete for spirit. The words Shin and Ling, in the con- 
crete, will be shown in numerous instances, to be employed 
alternately the one for the other, and our opponents must 
either give up the idea, that Shin in the concrete means 
a god, gods, or they must admit that Ling in the concrete 
means a god, gods, also. Should any foreigner impro- 
perly imagine that the English word spirit, means a god, 
gods, and on referring to philological authorities should 
find that it means an incorporeal intelligence, an intelligent 
being ; he must either give up his position, or admit that 
an incorporeal intelligence means a god, gods, also. There 
is no escaping from this argument. It does not avail to 



22 

say, that the Shins in the concrete are worshipped, prayed 
to t and sacrificed to ; for we shall see in the course of this 
paper, that the Lings in the concrete, are also worshipped, 
prayed to, and sacrificed to ; nor will it avail to say, that 
the word Shin in the concrete, is used of the highest class of 
beings of which the Chinese have any conception ; for we 
can show that the word Ling in the concrete, is classed 
with terms which designate the highest beings of which the 
Chinese have any conception. And yet Ling in the con- 
crete means spirit, and is argued for, by those who wish to 
use Shin for a god, gods, &c, as the best word which the 
language affords wherewith to translate Pneuma in the New 
Testament. By so doing, however, they defeat their own 
cause, and give into the hands of their opponents, one of 
the strongest weapons wherewith to combat their position, 
and shew that Shin in the concrete means spirit, as we 
knovj it does in the abstract. 

But it may be asked, if we think Ling synonymous with 
Shin which we call spirit, why cannot we take Ling as the 
translation of Pneuma ? We answer, because it is only sy- 
nonymous in one sense, but not synonymous in that sense 
especially in which we must use it, if we take it as the 
translation of Pneuma in the New Testament. It is only 
when the word Pneuma is used in the New Testament, for 
invisible intelligences of a virtuous kind, that Ling can be 
employed to represent that term : e. g. Heb. 1 : 14. (and per- 
haps Rev. 1 : 14, if the latter passage refer, as some suppose, 
to the seven archangels). In all other instances Ling is 
inapplicable, as a translation of Pneuma. It cannot be 
used for the vital spirit, or life ; nor for the rational spirit or 
mind ; still less for an evil spirit, or demon, (because one 
of the meanings of the word Ling, as given in the The- 
saurus, is ^ shen, good) ; nor for the spirit of God, of 
the Father, and of Christ, (for Ling in such connection 
would denote the intelligence, influence, or efficaciousness 
of the person to whom it was said to belong); nor last of all, 
can it be employed, when speaking of God as a spirit or im- 
material being, (for Ling does not necessarily convey the 
idea of that which is immaterial.) 

Having premised these observations, we proceed to adduce 
our quotations ; first under the head intelligent or ingenious^ 
in which sense. Ling differs from Shin ; the latter of which 
terms does not necessarily denote that which is intelligent ; 
and in the passages where it has been rendered inscrutably 



23 

intelligent, as in Nos. 16, 158, of « The true meaning of the 

word Shin," the emphasis was intended to be laid on the 

former rather than the latter of those expressions. 

I. Ling means intelligent. 

t^ A i§k ^f ^ 1| Man is the most intelligent of all crea- 
tures. 

~zi HI The three intelligent powers of nature, viz. heaven, 
earth and man. 

q§n §g Men are said to be the only intelligent inhabitants 
of this world. 

IS SI Intelligent insects. They ask, which are the most 
intelligent, — men or insects ? But if men are not equal to 
insects, how can they be called men ? 

WL 58 Very intelligent. Man is the most intelligent among 
living beings ; |$f A- H? IB ln * 3 man ma y De called 
intelligent. 

^ Jig Inscrutably wise and intelligent. 5f ^ Hwang-te 
was said to be so at his birth. 

ffi HI Naturally intelligent, contrasted with ]|| /§£ ordina- 
ry and dull. 
2 gig Greatly intelligent. 

5pL f|| Extremely intelligent : when a ruler is thus, he will 
know the will of Heaven. 

^ § Bright and intelligent, coupled with gff 5a c * ear 
and perspicuous. 

|j| JU Subtile and intelligent, contrasted with ^ @J dis- 
tressed and reduced to extremities. 

Ifjg ||l Luminous and intelligent. 

jfjffj ^ ||| The mental perceptions intelligent. 

Uli IR Purely intelligent : spoken of the heavenly unicorn. 

»gg l|| To conceive intelligent views, coupled with fg£ |fg 
possessing extensive knowledge. 

f$l H| To accord with the intellectual, as music is supposed 
to do. 



24 

^u) Hi To rendel ' tne mmd intelligent^ coupled with ^ ^ 
reforming the whole man. 

|p HI The wild geese appear to be intelligent, as if ac- 
quainted with men's feelings. 

Ti§ ffi Ingenious works of art. 

;|§J| H| Ingenious contrivances, coupled with }g /J strong 
determination. 

tit III Ingenious contrivances, contrasted with jj$J ]j£ 
pure correctness. 

nf HI Wonderful contrivances, coupled with 3£/ ~ff clever 

II. 6roorf ; excellent ; beautiful ; happy. 

Under this head, the meanings attached to the word Ling, 

differ from those aseribed to Shin, inasmuch as the former 

term necessarily denotes that which is good, and the latter 

is sometimes employed in a bad sense. 
yUl 5H Benevolent and good (as the unicorn), opposed to J||| 

fep£ rampant and tearing (as the lion). 
fljt Ise| Valuable excellencies, coupled with ^ J!| precious 

rarities. 
?pj 15 A- n excellent pagoda, (a Buddhist expression). 

To promote the growth of excellence, coupled with 

sowing the seeds of virtue* 
An excellent fountain. 
The elegancies of streams, coupled with [1} J^ the 

beauties of the mountains. 
j^ fU To increase in beauty of person. 
11 111 To contest tne P alrfl of beauty, and $^ ]f£ to vie with 

in excellence. 
HS -^ ® The excellence of the equine tribe. 
•J||8 H| Picturesque precipices, coupled with f^ff still pools. 
WL 18 f ^ ne exce l lent felicities (of life.) 
$J5£ g|| Good and happy. 




25 

III. Ling is used for intelligence in the abstract 

Under this head, Ling is most particularly distinguished 
from Shin, and they could not be used the one for the other, 
in any writing intended for the Chinese, without great risk 
of obscurity. It should be observed, that wherever Ling 
in the abstract occurs in regimen, it invariably refers to the 
intelligence or influence of the persons said to posse ss it, aod 
not to their spirit or soul. Thus Jt *S? /£ 111 '-' &oojtes the 
intelligence of the Supreme, 5C ^ 111 the intelligence 
obtained from Heaven, J^ ^ the intelligence of the people ; 
whereas Jjljj Shin, in similar connections, would denote the 
spirit of him to whom it belongs. It is on this account es- 
pecially that we cannot employ Ling as a translation of 
Pneuma. 
2S ill To se *k f° r intelligence, coupled with 2f£ Jfl coming 

to learn. 

Extraordinary intelligence, coupled with fj gg 

wonderful talent, 

Hj To contain intelligence, coupled with ||§r )ff embo- 
dying wisdom : also coupled with |g |f| embodying right 

principles. 
litiil To render perspicuous one's intelligence, coupled 

with $4 ^ perfecting one's nature. 
§g ||| The pure intelligence (of heaven and earth), coupled 

with vfp 5j|j the delicate influences (of nature). 
X)C fH To txert one's intelligence^ coupled with ^ jj|[ dis. 

playing one's excellencies. 
$$£ f|| Accomplished intelligence, coupled with $}{ §H pure 

virtue \ Jjjjj |H is also used for the splendid intelligence 

conferred on great men. 
pfcj |H To give rest to one's intelligence, coupled with gj| ! }]§J 

opening out one's understanding. 

Pure intelligence, coupled with jpf ff; sincere feeling. 
To accumulate intelligence ) coupled with ||| U|| 

storing up brightness. 




26 

ij£ JH To be pregnant with intelligence, coupled with ||| 

|=J being replenished with natural talent. 
•jg£ §g To receive intelligence, coupled with fj^^ opening 

out right principles. 
$$2 HI Natural intelligence, coupled with J^J, ^ elegant 

manners. 
© §| Natural intelligence, contrasted with I§ If! the/ee£- 

*n^5 of the mind. 
W S Natural intelligence contrasted with ^ "^ strength 

and vigour* 

g| To communicate with the intellectual faculty ^contras- 
ted with gjj ^ moving the spiritual energies. 

g Human subtlety and intelligence, contrasted with Jgf 

^ men's inclinations and dispositions. 
1$ §|| The intelligence of the mind, contrasted with l[j=f ;g 

the feelings and dispositions. 
t§ fH Mental intelligence, contrasted with $p ^ spiritual 

energies. 
i$ fUiiMental observation, opposed to §§ lfg| perception by 

the senses. 
5E IS To settle one's intelligence, contrasted with j§ |^ 

purifying one's spin*. 
^S illl Wholesome intelligence. 
%\ St Bright intelligence. Jl ^ ^ ^H ^ The bright 

intelligence of the Supreme. 
^H *8I Mental discernment, (unfathomable by others). 
•§£ ||g Much intelligence and discernment. 
^ 1|| Clearness of perception. See Morrison's Syllabic Dic- 
tionary, page 488. 
35 ^ HI The intelligence obtained from Heaven, (by 

means of which men excel all other animals). 

g Used for the pure intelligence, conferred by Heaven, 

of which men have more than other animals, and amongst 

men the literati get the greatest share. 




27 

^jp IB To maintain one's intelligence ; iCft TO ^T ill ^ e 

wmW preserves its intelligence. 
£T HI To assimilate to in intelligence ; e. g. |2| ]|| jfiql ^ 

jig to assimilate in intelligence to spiritual beings. 
$^j !H To display the intelligence of the human mind. 
*jH |H To awaken one's intelligence. 

f|g To preserve one's intelligence. 
§| To hand down one's intelligence, and ^g jfj lo trans- 
mit the proof to future ages. 

The intelligence of the people. 
(Man) may be compared for intelligence (with heaven 
and earth). 

IV. Ling is used for intelligences in the concrete ^ with 
regard to visible beings. 

Under this head, Ling differs totally from Shin. We 
confidently anticipate, that no instance can be found of Shin 
being used in the sense of visible intelligences, especially 
human beings. On the contrary, Shin is generally employ- 
ed as the antithesis of all that is seen and corporeal ; while 
Ling, as may be seen by the quotations, is often used for 
living men and the common people. This makes it impossi- 
ble for us to employ Ling as a translation of Pneuma, where 
that term refers to incorporeal existences ; and to say, that 
God is a Ling, is to say no more of him than can be said of 
the mass of human beings ; we are aware that our English 
word soul is used for human beings, but soul in such an 
acceptation corresponds to person not to spirit. 
{■J* §1 Living beings ; every living creature. See Morrison's 

Syllabic Dictionary, page 811. 
£E SI Living beings, contrasted with ^fcifeheaven and earth \ 
££s SI Living beings, contrasted with ^ , p| the wide 

universe. 
££: fH The common people, contrasted with ^ ^ the im- 
perial relatives. 



28 

^ HI The common people^ contrasted with )fij ^ the va- 
rious officers. 

$* H Tne common people, contrasted with ^ jj^ the ci- 
vil and military officers. 

IS 3l §§ To promote the happiness of the people, con- 
trasted with ||£ Jf^ jjjfjj keeping at a distance spiritual be- 
ings. In this quotation Ling is the very opposite of Shin. 

S?f Hi The hundred intelligences, synonymous with J^| ^j* 
the people. 

W IS The hundred intelligences , coupled with ^ ||J the 
myriad of states. 

/X Si Human intelligences t used synonymously with J^ 
|^* the common people. * 

J^ f|§ Human intelligences, are synonymous with |$^ "jf^* 
the black-haired people. 

}\. ill Human intelligences, antithetical lo ^ j|| heaven 
and earth. 

"§t III Those possessed of intelligence (the people) ; e. g. 
Ilf'^ protect my people. 

iq 111 ^he intelligences (or the people), contrasted with 
irrational or inanimate things. 

^ lH The common intelligences, contrasted with §E 
sages and philosophers. 

^ |H Rational beings, contrasted with gj |jg[ animals 
and plants. 

^IL 15 ^ ne "Ckillions of intelligences (the people), coupled 
with HJ |j£ the myriads of minor affairs. 

U ^ To overshadow the intelligences, (the people). 

l=f HI To nourish visible intelligences (the people), con- 
trasted with w|£ jfi$ tranquillizing invisible beings. Here 
again Shin and Ling are antithetical, as also in the next 
quotation : 

~?" 5| To nourish visible intelligences, contrasted with 
"ilW ."•atiing invisible beings. 

j£ SI -" : settle the z;m*6Je intelligences , (the people), 



29 

$£ S|| Multitudinous intelligences, (the people). 

|3J 5|j The four wits, alluding to the four poets of the Siing 
dynasty. 

^ h? ?as Three remarkable tints. 

|?g The myriads of intelligences : e. g. " the influence of 
the sages above extends to j$r jif heaven, beneath to ^ 
Sp ear/A, and in the midst to -plj Q the myriads of 
intelligences" 

^gj HI The myriads of intelligent beings, coupled with (TJJ 
j|! the four successive generations. 
gg The myriads of intelligent beings, coupled with 
tf^j the various classes of objects. 

^ ||i The myriads of intelligent beings, said to be nourish- 
ed by heaven and earth. 

tq- III Ancient intelligences or men of genius. 

^» |H To examine intelligent persons, coupled with ^ |^ 
influencing common individuals. 

U §1 To fo3ter wits, coupled with $£| |]§ bringing to light 
philosophers. 

V. Zrt'rcg* fe w.?ec? for intelligences in the concrete, xoith 

reference to invisible beings. 

Under this head, we have arranged a class of quotations, 
which shew that Shin and Ling very much resemble each 
other, in being of the same nature, being used synonymously, 
being coupled and contrasted in a similar way, having the 
same attributes and epithets bestowed upon them, receiving 
the same honours, conferring the same blessings, and sus- 
taining the same associations in the highest rank of invisible 
beings. 

1. Shin and Ling are of the same nature, and as suck 
are coupled together. 
1H Spiritual beings and invisible intelligences are said to 
protect and bless mankind. 



30 

2. They are used synonymously in the same forms of 
expression. 

f* |H The intelligences of the upper world, are synonymous 
w * tn JL IBV tne spirits °f the upper world. 
*pj §§[ The hundred invisible intelligences, are synonymous 
with {5 Jjjip the hundred spiritual beings. See No. 7, of 
the " True meaning of the word Shin." 
1W SI Fairies and invisible intelligences, synonymous with 
f^ fill spirits and fairies. 
fH All the invisible intelligences, synonymous with |i| 
f|} all the spiritual beings. 

fH The host of invisible intelligences, synonymous with 
^( the host of spiritual beings. 
- |§1 The multitude of invisible intelligences, synonym- 
ous with Jfjj f^l the multitude of spiritual beings. See 
No. 74. Ibid. 
|8f ?|jj The collected invisible intelligences, synonymous 

with fH f$ the collected spirits. 
§fj fj§ The bright intelligences, synonymous with fj^ fjfl 

the intelligent spirits. See No. 62. Ibid. 
Jlj §5 The invisible intelligence presiding over the hill, 
synonymous with |X| |$ the spirit superintending the hill. 
See No. 100. Ibid. 
jj§ fH The invisible intelligence presiding over the Tae 
mountain, synonymous with ^J ^ the spirit superintend- 
ing the Tae mountain. 
jlj? §g The invisible intelligence presiding over the sea, 
synonymous with $§: W tne *p*ro7 superintending the 
sea. See No. 24. Ibid. 
Jjjj 15 The invisible intelligence presiding over the Yellow 
River, synonymous with $ij f(j| the spirit superintending 
the Yellow River. See No. 193. Ibid. 
y^B SI The invisible intelligence presiding over the Seang 
River, synonymous with $j|j f|j| the spirit superintending 
the Seang River. See No. 186, Ibid. 



31 

J£f |H The invisible intelligence presiding over the Lo River, 
synonymous with |£f v$ the spirit superintending the Lo 
River. See No. 43. Ibid. 

}H HI The invisible intelligence presiding over the Han 
River, synonymous with g| fjjl the spirit superintending 
the Han River. See No. 131. Ibid. 

iJCpf The invisible intelligence presiding over fire, syno- 
nymous with ^ fi^ the spirit superintending fire. 

^C pi The invisible intelligences presiding over water, 
synonymous with^fC fjpthe spirits superintending water. 
See No. 25. Ibid. e. g. " when the |J 3f$ hundred spirits 
receive their appointment, the ^fC H* intelligences presi= 
ding over water are among the greatest" 

l±f gg To announce to invisible intelligences, synonymous 
with ^§f pp to announce to spiritual beings. 

Jjg §££ To communicate with invisible intelligences, syno- 
nymous with ij|| f!p communicating with spiritual beings. 

3. Shin and Ling resemble each other , in being coupled in 
a similar way. 

— M The three invisible intelligences, who regard men's 
offerings . are coupled with j?| f jfl the hundred spiritual 
beings, who are arranged in order in the court of Heaven. 

±L HI The five invisible intelligences, are coupled with /\ 
^Q the six objects of worship. 

J\ 31 The eight invisible intelligences, are coupled with 
/^ 'fiff the six spiritual beings. 

J^ fU The invisible intelligences presiding over the sea, 
are coupled with (lj jjj^ the spiritual beings who super- 
intend the mountains. 

HI HI Sacred intelligences , are coupled with §£j fQ bright 
objects of sacrifice. 

5JJC g| The invisible intelligences presiding over water, are 
coupled with))]i||H;the spiritual beings controlling the land. 

PP HI The host of invisible intelligences, coupled with Jp£ 
f||| the host of spiritual beings. 



32 

HI 1=] 31 To cherish regard towards the 100 intelligences , 
coupled with jjjj§? flf? jj(J| treating with propriety the spirits 
of heaven and earth. 

3M B To reach to invisible intelligences} coupled with xU 
flfl resembling spiritual beings. 

j^l ^ To hail invisible intelligences , coupled with fj 5 ^ 
welcoming spiritual beings. 

35 IB ^1 SI ^ ne aus pi° es °f the intelligence presiding 
over the sky, coupled with jj^ f^ ^ §|| the blessings 
conferred by the spirit superintending the ground. 

^fc j|£ |jjc fj| To invite invisible intelligences to sit down 
and partake of a sacrifice, coupled with jjjlfl $5$ ^ ^ the 
spiritual beings acceding to the invitation. 

If ^^ Q ill ^ HP 1^ The */»Wte of heaven bless- 
ing me and granting me longevity, coupled with ""p j|| 
liP "^ I© HI "F IS the ^°fty intelligences descending 
for my protection for thousands and myriads of years. 

55f§£ *w m ^ ne Ge l es W intelligences affording protection, 
coupled with flfl jf^ ^ |§ the spirits of heaven and 
earth granting a blessing. 

fg Celestial intelligences, coupled with|jp Jfljj terrestrial 



|9[ |§g The great intelligence, coupled with Jfi flfl the ori- 
ginal spirit, who according to the Taouists produced the 
primaeval chaos. 

4. Shin and Ling resemble each other, in being contrasted 
in a similar way. 

yg, HI Communicating with invisible intelligences, con- 
trasted with ^ J^| influencing the unseen world. 

IH IS Associating with invisible intelligences, contrasted 
with ^ fllj uniting with the genii. 

f|Ij HI The genii and intelligences of the invisible, contrast- 
ed with H* ^ wise and clever men of the visible world. 

gf §1 The hundred itwisible intelligences, contrasted with 
§p fjl| the host of genii. 



33 

J5[ ggg The intelligence presiding over the rivers, contrasted 

with )|j /§ the invisible queen superintending the streams. 

?M lil To pervade invisible intelligences } contrasted with 

yfijasj penetrating the unseen vjorld. 
ip fig The host of invisible intelligences, contrasted with 
jj j/jy the multitude of mysterious beings. 
gSg To assemble invisible intelligences, contrasted with 
U YVM collecting aerial genii. 

H| Excellent intelligences, contrasted with (£f|j ^ the 
dignified ones of the invisible world. 

3£g. To influence invisible intelligences, contrasted with 
Jjfjf jffii causing the spiritual energies to respond. 
®! S3 To influence invisible intelligences, contrasted with 

jy ^ moving the inhabitants of the unseen world. 
j|$5 'lal To influence invisible intelligences, contrasted with 

P? Hut bringing down blessings from above, 
fff Si? Fairies- and invisible intelligences, contrasted with 

9* jgis tne multitude of objects contemplated in sacrifice. 
fx 18 Waiting intelligences, contrasted with ]||| ;§? as- 
cending incense. 
Sjjk lH To imitate invisible intelligences, contrasted with )|j5 

till copying the genii, 
;||l ||j To consult with invisible intelligences, contrasted 

with ji^J J5? deliberating with mysterious beings. 
Wl IS Earthly intelligences, contrasted with ^C ft' celes- 
tial nobles. 
^ ||| The multitude of invisible intelligences, contrasted 

with §( fil| the host of genii. 
j|J» HI The intelligences of the invisible world, contrasted 

with [$£) flS§ the ghosts of the darksome region. 
H/j lH Moving intelligences, contrasted with g jg| torpid 

)1J HI The invisible intelligences presiding over rivers, 
contrasted with [1}3^j the auspicious influences surround- 
ing the hills. 




34 

4J* m To cause invisible intelligences to ascend, contrasted 

with Pfsfpi causing the fairies to descend. 
3pL|H Ethereal intelligences (of the heavenly courts), 
contrasted with 3|§ 5&S the o|cwl ranks of earthly halls. 
jjj=[ ||j Ethereal intelligences, contrasted with j|L A. mira- 
culous personages. 
"?L SI ^ ne nme intelligences (of the invisible world), con- 
trasted with j£ 55 the five heroes (of the celestial region). 
Jtlf HI r ^° P ra y t0 invisibte intelligences, contrasted with 
ij$ divining at the border sacrifice. 
* To whip on invisible intelligences, contrasted with 
|j SH mounting fabulous animals. 

I To urge on invisible intelligences, contrasted with 
j|L associating with celestial genii. 

4. Shin and Ling resemble each other, in having similar 
epithets prefixed. 

B §§The great intelligence presiding over lofty mountains ; 
similar to ^ # the great spirit. See JNo. 68, 129, and 132 
of the tract on « The true meaning of Shin." Heaven and 
earth uniting, produced the g H great intelligence. 
The^ Supreme commanded the g |g g^at toeMi- 
g-ence, to open out the veins of the earth, 
fl The intelligences of the invisible region, similar to 
f| ffl the sp*rte of the unseen world. 
§ Dignified intelligences. 
^ || Excellent intelligences, who are served by men. See 
No. 94 of the tract on " The true meaning of Shin." 

Wise intelligences, who are supposed to descend 

when invoked. t*C 4& 

I- jj Glorious intelligences, who are supposed to # v 7fo 
come down with $1 p felicitous influences, 
jp 1|| Felicitous intelligences. 



35 

5. Shin and Ling are alike, in being supposed to accept 
the same honours ) and confer the same blessings. 

&l S P? ^ P: iE Among the myriad of invisible intelli- 
gences, there is not one that is not sacrificed to. 

Biff ^ JlL SiB P ra y t0 and serve the intelligences of the 
upper world. 

3J>jS ^ _Jl §1 Reverently serve the intelligences of the 
upper world. 

?$ 'Hi ¥ ^ lr£ Hf ^8- M B y g^teful acknowledgement 
we serve Heaven, and by sacrifices we honour invisible 
intelligences. 

WC 5* Wt lal To sacrifice to the dignified intelligences. 

yC §§ R^ ?F The intelligence presiding over fire sends 

down blessings. 
j§^ 18 PP }jpE| The intelligence presiding over the sky sends 

down protection. 
3E )l£ill To look towards invisible intelligences in sacrifice. 

$fc iaS ilR @I TT 7l May tne g° 0( * intelligences partake of 
this my fragrant incense. 

5C SI H( HM The celestial intelligences were influenced 
by, and answered to the prayer for rain. 

^{j^^^^^iMS Reverently prepare the ox for 
sacrifice, and purely present it to the distant intelligences. 

75 SB ^t B M Iff H f ¥ He sacrificed to the invisible 
intelligences of earth, in order to pray for blessings. 

2j\ fBc Jlfl S Sacrifice to those ancestorial intelligences. 

^^^lEiS^^lsOn the green altar offer the 
sacrifice ; before the high tablet praise the invisible intelli- 
gences. 

$g* |p ~P i ^ §| Reverently worship the intelligences 
presiding over this lower world. 

S E3 $? ^L '$& ^ ne em P eror bowed to the invisible in- 
telligences presiding over the four quarters. 



36 

6. Shin and Ling resemble each other in being associated 
vjith the highest beings. 

jTGf |H The four invisible intelligences , allude to the |70 *jfgf 
four celestial riders, one of them (the fft^ Jjg 5 ruler presi- 
ding over the red colour) having been, on the occasion 
alluded to, previously mentioned. 

|MHS Paying honours to the hundred intelligences, 
coupled with if jl W serving the Supreme Ruler. 

-t^KS?S^^ Ma y tne Supreme Ruler sur- 
vey, and the multitude of invisible intelligences defend us ! 

HI IH The invisible intelligence presiding over plainness, is 
synonymous with gj *fjf the celestial ruler presiding over 
the white colour. 

j§r |g The great intelligence, is coupled with jj£ ^J the 
sombre original. 

/fe SI The invisible intelligence presiding over the vermilion 
colour, is coupled with ^ *fff the celestial ruler presiding 
over the azure colour. 

7)fi §§ The invisible intelligence presiding over the red co- 
lour, is associa ted with 1^ *^ Yen-te, the invisible ruler 
of the southern heavens ; his name is ^ §!§ Chiih-yung, 
which is the name of the jjj|| Shin said to be associated 
with the above-named celestial ruler, in the fH jf[J Le-ke. 
See Theology of the Chinese, page 74. 

^ |H The invisible intelligence presiding over the green 
colour, is associated with /& ^f* T'hae-haou, the invisi* 
ble rider of the eastern heavens ; his name is 4j ^ Kow- 
mang, which is the name of the §* Shin said to be 
associated with the above-named celestial ruler, in the 
Le-ke. See Theology of the Chinese, page 73. 

Tp| |U The invisible intelligence presiding over the yellow 
colour, is associated with fcp ^ *W tne invisible ruler of 
the central heavens : the official name of this personage is 
)pt i How-t'hob, which is the name of the jf|f Shin said 



37 

to be associated with the above-named celestial ruler, or 
^ ^ Hwang-te. in the Le-ke. Ibid. 

I§J SI The invisible intelligence presiding over the white 
colour, is associated with y? [Hjk Shabu-haou, the invisi- 
ble ruler of the western heavens ; his name is £p Mjr 
Jiih-show, which is the name of the ^ Shin said to be 
associated with the above-named celestial ruler, in the 
Le-ke. Ibid. 

gg ^ The invisible intelligence presiding over the black 
colour, is associated with |p 3pJ Chuen-heiih, the invisi- 
ble ruler of the northern heavens ; his name is j££ 3j£ 
Heuen-mmg, which is the name of the f$ Shin said to be 
associated with the above-named celestial ruler, in the 
Le-ke ; proving all the above Lings- to be identical with 
the Shins of the same name. Ibid. 

&3*MZ1M$W*->ZMM ToMcendon 

the road trodden by celestial intelligences, and to ride in 
the chariot of the Imperial Great One. 

VI. Ling is used in the sense of wonderful ; miraculous. 
In this acceptation it corresponds with j|p Shin, which 
frequently bears the same sense ; but as so used, it has no 
affinity with Pneuma, in any of the meanings attached to 
that word. 

El HI The three wonderful things; viz. the terrace, the pool, 
and the park of Wan-wang. 

JhO PI To examine the mysterious (as sages do). 

*j§ §g To understand the mysterious, coupled with -j^ jjjfp 
penetrating the spiritual. 

IS To know thoroughly the mysterious^ coupled with 
St W exhausting the wonderful. 

JH HI To pervade the marvellous, coupled with j\ f$ 
entering the mysterious. 

P^f!| To enter the mysterious, coupled with Jfjf jfjjl ex- 
hausting the spiritual. 



38 

^ !§ To print an account of wonders, coupled with |>| jtjjjf 

publishing a statement of miracles* 
JBv S Wonderful and miraculous ; spoken of a sword that 

will cut through stones ; also of charms. 
55 ||| Extremely wonderful, coupled with £§ jjj$ very 

VII. Ling is used to denote majesty, awe and dignity, 

WL B Digged majesty, coupled with ^^ splendid virtue. 
Dignified majesty, coupled with jj|? j^EE the im- 
perial court. 

\ PS Dignified majesty,, coupled with JS?|jjpf sagelike virtue. 
i ill Dignified majesty, coupled with |H t ® gracious 
kindness. 

I |H Glorious majesty. 

I |jg| Majestic dignity, coupled with ^ ^f§ elegant virtue. 
I 'jH Majestic dignity, coupled with *^» |p|l imperial 
splendour. 

Dignity bestowed in a gracious manner, on a success- 
ful general, or imperial relatives. 

§ f§g Graciously-conferred dignity, coupled with ^J fflf 
bright adorning. 

I @ Graciously -conferred dignity, coupled with jfj ^ 
pleasing luxuriance. 

Awe-inspiring dignity, coupled with >]|§ ^ over- 
powering majesty. 
fjg To diffuse intimidating awe. 



I To display dignity, coupled with pfi )j% setting forth 
majesty. 
HH ^| The majesty of the state. 
Up lg Fame and dignity. 

VIII. Z^ng- is used for the efficicaciousness attributed to 
various objects and beings. 

In the following list, wherever jBI ling is spoken of as 

ate ~s* eii* ~JL /i ^is 

belonging to persons, as fj}f -jp gg Te-tsze-ling, fjr 2% HI 



39 

Shay-kung,ling, the term does not refer to the spirit of 

tho9e persons, as jjjjfl Shin in like circumstances would, — 

but to their efficaciousness. 

;£ 111 Very efficacious. 

gfil §g To be alone efficacious. 

I||| |H To carry out to the full the efficaciousness of any 

invisible cause. 
rL HI To become efficacious, as spirits are supposed to be, 

when separated from the body. 
HJ §g The myriads of efficacious things, coupled with ^p 

lyil the thousand things productive of wonderful results. 
HI !^I Rivulets becoming efficacious, coupled with J$£ "j*j 

lands attaining antiquity. 
>M Si Altars becoming efficacious, coupled with 

temples possessing miraculous powers. 
{SUP!! An efficacious image, coupled with j|g j|| a far- 
sounding bell. 
P. I® The superior efficacy (of the stars), coupled with 3p 

^H the subtile influence (of the hills and rivers). 
r. |H The superior efficacy (of the hills and mountains), 

coupled with >|§r ^ the subtile energies (of the clouds 

and winds). 
^f 4§g To possess efficacy, coupled with J=§ £ becoming 

indwelling (as a demon in an image). 
^ jg To possess efficacy, coupled with $ffi fjf leaving no 

/races. 
^ |g To store up efficacious influences, coupled with ^ 

■^f being pregnant with wonders. 
Je Iffi Efficacious stars, coupled with))] Infelicitous streams. 
JJr J§J IgThe efficaciousness of theSha-liih region,* compared 

with ^C j^ f|f the influence of the T J hae-yih star. 
*W BIS 18 Tne efficaciousness of the river map, coupled with 

3f€ >T TO the su °tilty of the eastern well. 
?! lH 51 ^he efficaciousness of the stone dwelling, compared 

with ^ H? S the miraculousness of the golden terrace. 



40 

W j I§ The efficaciousness of the Ruler's son, coupled 

with JpC \ ^ the subtilty of ethereal beings. 
3* If To display efficaciousness > coupled with j^ J|J per- 
fecting prognostics* 
^ '§g The divining straws efficacious^ coupled with jft 3f|} 

bamboos possessing" subtile powers, 
||5 ^ £1 To throw down the divining rod with efficacy. 
^C |H Inefficacious : the tortoise and divining straws are 

said to be thus after the lapse of time. 
$ff ^If SI (Tortoises) when they hold down their heads, are 

efficacious, 
wk nA matting (the tortoise) under the bed, it becomes 

efficacious. 

The dragon's efficaciousness : they say, that it is no 

matter how deep water is, it must have a dragon in it, in 

order to be efficacious. 
|g| The efficacy of dragons, contrasted with ^ Hf the 

subtile influence of phoenixes. 

B Si (Dragons) are known to be efficacious by 

their contracting and expanding. 
£2 81 To seek to render (a temple) efficacious. 
'fcfc £t IS The spirit presiding ^over the land becoming 

efficacious. 
3lL W HI The place of sacrifice to demons efficacious. 
\UsZl0tWi The hills are very efficacious^ in consequence 

of which, literary men are said to be produced. 
^P Sp: Hi The efficaciousness of the middle peak. 
3Tq Hf The northern region efficacious. 
Hifil SI The efficaciousness of the Hwae and Tsob regions. 
T - Jjfj 111 The efficaciousness of the ten islands. 

' $i 111 Nature's productions efficacious. 
Efficacious gems. 
•^ ^t 8 The efficaciousness of two certain stars. 
fy f^P 8S Small charms efficacious. 




41 

^1 35 SI The witch of Tsob is efficacious. 

"— ©J §ig One sword is efficacious. 

yf f§| Medical prescriptions efficacious. 

2? ?jC H Herbs and trees efficacious, coupled with J^ jj 

PR prescriptions followed by the anticipated results. 
fflt fj£ HI The back of the elbow efficacious, (spoken of 

prescriptions, which ancient practitioners used to keep 

behind their elbows). 
&N PP S Every joint efficacious , (said of a certain reed). 

Infill (The posthumous works) of an author becoming 

efficacious, (in producing great results). 

gg The pencil and inkstone efficacious. 



»& :£ ||| The bones of a man are sometimes efficacious, (in 

procuring longevity). 
BC © Influential customs, contrasted with ||§ ||£ e^ca- 

cious virtues. 

IX. Ling is used for the influence attributed to various 
objects and beings* 

Under this head, also, it will be seen that where |g Ling 
is used as belonging to persons, such as ^ te, 'ftlj seen, 
ff $J shin-seen, ffl£ tsob, 3E Wang, f^ keun, I|| shing, 
&c, the meaning is influence, and not spirit. 
*tf? fH The influence of the Supreme, coupled with ^|^ 

celestial favours. 
jJH gg The influence of the superior principle of nature, con- 
trasted with |rg JjJ the essence of the inferior principle of 
nature. 
fzz J?? The influence of the inferior principle of nature, con- 



trasted with g| j|s the efficacy of the superior principle. 
il£ IH The influence of earth, coupled with^iffj the genial 

correspondence of heaven, 
^g HI Terrestrial influence, contrasted with ^C ff celestial 

blessing. 



42 

j$2 Jjjl Terrestrial influence, con tras ted wiih 5v ^ heavenly 

guidance. 
J$ Sil The influence of earth, contrasted with ^C IPJ tne 

pattern of heaven. 
i^ |H The influence of earth, contrasted with ^ -jjjjjj] the 

firmness of heaven. 
3t5 IS (Heaven and earth) contain a variety of influences, 

(forthe use of mankind). 

f Jjg To respond to the influences (of earth), coupled with 



g answering to the regards (of heaven). 

3m S To diffuse abroad the influences (of heaven and earth). 

Jjif H| The pure influences {of nature), coupled with ^P ^ 
the genial influences (of heaven and earth). 

W% IS The subtile influences (of nature). 

wT Us To expand the influences (of nature). 

^8: IH To imbue with the influences (of nature). 

tfc H| To send forth influences , coupled with fg| ^ dis- 
playing energies. 

§£ 1?]^ To receive the influences (of heaven and earth). 

J|L fig! To receive the influences (of heaven and earth), cou- 
pled with *§f fj|§ including the energy (of moral virtue). 

^H ||| To receive supernatural influences, coupled with ^ 
3j^ partaking of spiritual energies. 

)]|§ §|i To store up supernatural influences, coupled with ;|gj 
JS embracing wonderful powers. 

f$ HI To display supernatural influences, coupled with J?p! 
jjjjfi sending down spiritual energies. The hills and 
rivers are said to display such influences. 

P^f l|| To manifest supernatural influence, coupled with ^ 
^ displaying a beautiful appearance. 
P H| The upper influences, contrasted with ~[C 1^ the 
lower auspices. ^ 

f|!| SI Tne wfiu ence of tije S eilii ; coupled with ^^ the 
essence of the clouds. 



43 



jFulS WiW To depend on the influence of spirits and 
fairies. 

^f §!£ The influences of the mooo, coupled with Hf* ^ the 
auspicious aess of the clouds. 

fpfjjElilThe influence of the contemplated rabbit; i.e.the moon 

¥w SB Used for the combined influences of the 7 planets, 
and of the hills and rivers. 

Up Si The influences of Pleiades, coupled with J§g ifff the 
essences of the stars. 

ES ^Jv /^L 238 The immaterial influence of the thunder, and 
^/C |EJ ^ Jfflf the subtile essence of the T'hae-pili star. 

Wk iK The influence of the mountains, supposed to be effica- 
cious in producing clever men. 

Wk HI The influences of the mountains, coupled with y\ 5^ 
the fortunes of men. 

Ijgi To send down influences , as the hills are supposed 
to do, in order to produce virtuous men. 

P^ |H To send down influences, coupled with ^ ^ pro- 
moting powerful results. 

^STo send down influences, coupled with ^ j|j£ multi- 
plying blessings. 

Pf* jgg To send down influences y coupled with i|| HS pro- 
ducing sages. 

J& STiJ The influence of the great mountain. 

$£ S (The hills and rivers) manifest their influences, and 
(the^heavenly bodies) IgJ jjjff display their verifications. 

$C IS (The invisible world) displays its influences, and (the 
hills and rivers) J|| J|. open out their wonderful powers. 
* IS The pure influences (of the hills and rivers), coupled 
with JE Mi the proper energies (of the stars). 

g The pure influences (of heaven and earth), coupled 
with 5^ ^ the excellent powers (of the Yin and Yang). 
sin! To permit the display of influences, (as the hills and 
rivers do). 



44 



3H gg To receive the influences (of the mountains), coupled 

wiUi If. ^ cultivating the energies (of nature), 
x/v HI ( Tne hills) store up efficacious influences, and (the 
sea) j^ ^ contains extraordinary powers. 

To overtop all other influences. 
I S A Iive ly influence, such as that of the hills and rivers, 
which are supposed to produce clever men. 
HI To depend on the influence (of great rivers). 
Jgg 1 he majestic influence (of ancestors). 
1D5 & The influence of the ancestorial temple, contrasted 
^ with 'ffi'jfy the strength of the Supreme. 
I$* The influence of ancestors. 



r§T=| 



J§ Iil To re ly on the influence (of ancestors). 

3E jpjji Royal influence. 

jf^ M To depend on the influence (of a ruler). 

§§, §|g The influence of his sacred majesty, (the emperor). 

jfH |»g The kind influences (of the emperor). 

^ |H The influence of a sovereign, on which reliance may 

be placed. 
jg? |H To solicit the influence of departed worthies, coupled 

with ]|| ]|j| depending on their gracious favour. 
H! IM The influence of the sages, coupled with ff| jffi feli- 
citous omens. 
3jJ §| To hand down their influences (as virtuous men do). 
J^ HI Martial influence, contrasted with 3£ ||| literary 

efficacy. 
HH f|| To depend on the influence of any one. 
*& S3 To contain influences. 
fll HI To 8tore U P efficacious influences, coupled with ^ j]flp 

combining felicitous omens. 
5p ||ji To succeed in obtaining efficacious influences. 
%% ||| To display efficacious influence, coupled with gE^U 

handing down glorious splendour. 
^ |H To display efficacious influences, coupled with ppy pj 

opening out hidden mysteries. 



45 

IS HI* » To correspond in influence, coupled with ^ $|[ 
uniting in efficacy. 

^g|To open out the influences of anything. 

j^| SS Combined influence, coupled with jjj^§ awe-in- 
spiring virtue. 

fj^ H| Mild influence. 

JH IS To diffuse abroad efficacious influences. 

IE SS Correct influence. 

H^To display invisible influences. 

j|j| §!| The coming forth of subtile influences. 

^ ||| The precious influence (of music). 

|H jg[| Happy influences, coupled with^i^jf; pure attractions. 

H| |H Lucky influences, coupled with Hgj|g superabundant 
kindness, 

^ fH To receive influences, : v coupled with ^"^depend- 
ing on favours, 

^§To receive the influences (of wise men), coupled with 
iS Hi collecting the efficacies (of nature). 

J| jH To lengthen out one's influence, (i. e. one's life). 

^ HI To fathom influences, coupled with J|lJ f^ examin- 
ing transformations. 

j^^ To cultivate immaterial influences, (as the Taouists 
pretend to do). 

i§> 18 Gracious influence. 

Iff 18 To receive influence, coupled with ||E ^ being en- 
dowed with energy. 

3^0 § Auspicious influences, coupled with (Jpf 5g felicitous 
plants. 

||g ||| To send down influences, coupled with $|§ fit com- 
municating happiness. 

2j=* fH To be pregnant with influence, coupled with jff B|l 
being abundant in glory. 

5>f H Opening influence, coupled with |jb ^ collecting 
subtilty. 



46 

|g To have a supply of influences, coupled with }]1| fj§ 
being enriched with efficacy. 
$jj|j§|| To display happy influences, coupled with ffs 3j5JJ 
producing felicitous omens. 

X. Ling is used for light and brightness. 

Under this and the following heads, Jjg Ling is so used 
as to indicate no resemblance whatever to jjjfp Shin, which 
latter term is never used as the former is seen to be below. 
BUI!! To display brightness, coupled with ^j^ hanging 

up lights (for illumining the earth); 
•J^j 'HI Bright and illuminating , as a halo round sacred 

relics ; also used for the results of cultivated virtue, or 

the bright glories of ancestors. 
2j£ |H To be pregnant with light, contrasted with |)a| ||f 

sometimes suffering obscurity , (as the moon). 

XL Ling is used for illuminators, or splendid things. 

zEl iS The three illuminators (viz. sun, moon and stars), 

contrasted with ZZ£ Jf| the two invisible forms (viz. hea- 

venand earth). 
HE: IS The three illuminators (of heaven), contrasted with 

|Z3 Jlp the four seas (of earth). 
zEl HI The three illuminators, contrasted with ^^t tne 

six meteorological changes, (viz the Yin and Yang, wind 

and rain, obscurity and splendour). 
EH SB The three illuminators, contrasted with j71| l£ ^ e 

four pillars (of nature). 
EEt iS The three illuminators (of heaven), contrasted with 

p|£ t§| the myriad kingdoms (of the world). 
B|| |U The splendid illuminators (or heavenly bodies), cou- 
pled with fjfc ^ the excellent influences (of nature). 
|3|§ HJ The splendid illuminators (generally), contrasted 

with j=j?j ^J the constellation Virgo (in particular). 
Bf§ fH The splendid illuminators (do not cease), contrasted 

with ^ J|p the celestial hours (being well regulated). 



47 

IS HI The splendid illuminators (shine through the ere- 

vices), contrasted with tJ^ |g the red mists (entering the 

windows). 
B|§ '|§ ' The splendid illuminators' is applied also to the 

classics ; without which men would be in darkness. 
'jj J»g The hundred illuminator s^ contrasted with EEl j^f 

the three lights (of heaven). 
— » gzi The two illuminators (of heaven ; viz. sun and moon), 

contrasted with j\± g^ the nine districts (of earth). 
Q i§| The solar illuminator (the sun), coupled with ^§J 

the celestial chariot. 
yZ §e The glorious illuminator (the sun). 
Si SS The murky illuminator (the sun), so called because 

of its connection with this dusty world. 
51 fjg The round illuminator (the moon). 

fig The pale illuminator (the moon), contrasted with 
f? ^ tne red-coloured clouds. 
3?? 111 The pale illuminator (the moon), contrasted with 

^p£ jjjl the yellow genius (the sun). 
Iff §H ' The pale illuminator' 1 is also a poetical name for 

the snow. 
jjj$j |5£ The delicate illuminator (the moon), contrasted with 

^ B|l the female shiners (the stars). 
PJ^j f§i The bright illuminators (heavenly bodies), coupled 

with *ff ]§$the precious calculations (of astronomers). 
jj§§ lil The purple illuminator (or imperial star), coupled 

with ^f^jt the yellows/fag* (or royal standard). 
3§f §1 The brilliant Scorpio, coupled with jffj jgp the con- 

stellation Pleiades. 
J|; f|| The autumnal illuminator (a bright halo), coupled 

with ^ J|r the ethereal glory (the sun). 
j$ f# The bright illuminator (or window), contrasted with 

ill fe 1 the wooden supporters (or balustrade.) 
J=| l|g The dark indicator (clepsydra), contrasted with §?£ 

irfc the displaying style (gnomon). 



% 



4S 

XII. Ling' is used also for the celestial signs. 

In the sense in which Ling is used, under this and the 
following head, it has no affinity with Shin. 
IB The f° ur celestial signs, contrasted with IE: ]Ju tne 

three lights of nature. 
[JEf §|| The four wonderful signs, contrasted with 3EjJ3p the 

five planets. 
!H The four celestial signs, contrasted with y^ U the 

six meteorological changes. 
3E 13 The five celestial signs, contrasted with -^ J^ the 

three lights of heaven. 
3E H[ The five celestial signs, contrasted with "jrf jj|| the 

hundred blessings. 

XIII. Z^ng- is used for fabulous animals. 

E3 IS The four fabulous animals, consisting of unicorns, 
phoenixes, divining tortoises, and dragons, contrasted with 

/ > SH tne s * x dragons. 
"-ft fH The five fabulous animals, same as the above, with 

the addition of the ^jf ^§ white tiger. 
5ft* III Th e red fabulous animal, alluding to the red dragon. 

XIV. Ling combined with other characters, is used for 
various names and things : such as — 

2£ fH Baggage waggons. JE fH The name of a tree, ffe 
§H China root* 3E §1 The name of a necromancer. 
~ Name of a palace. Jp| f|| Name of a place. ||| 
Name of a hill, $$ IS Name of a country. $jj| §|| 
Name of an aromatic. |j!j fH Name of a wind instru- 
ment. !f|> fH Name of a pool. ]Jr H Name of an invi- 
sible being. *% H Name of a tem P le * ^ St Name 
of a temple. ^ H Name tf a three-legged crow. ^ jff 
Name of an inkstone. HIS Name ° f a Buddhist 
temple. If l| Name of a man^ |£ U Name of a 
man. ^ft Name of a man. J^I ^ 11 Name of a 
man. 




49 

Thus it appears, that ^ Shin and f§? Ling bear little or 
no resemblance to each other, under the first four heads of 
the foregoing analysis, in which gg Ling is shewn to be 
used in the sense of L intelligent ; II. good, excellent ; III. 
intelligence in the abstract ; and IV. intelligence iu the con- 
crete, with reference to visible beings ; it i3 only when ^| Ling 
begins to be used in the sense of V. invisible intelligences, that 
it corresponds to Shin. Allied to the idea of in visible intelli- 
gences, is that of VI. mysterious and wonderful ; with VII. awe- 
inspiring and dignified ; in which sense Ling is used equally 
with Shin. Pes^ing on from this point, through the quotations 
whanged under the follow in ■? heads cf VIII. the efficaciousness, 
and IX. influence attributed to various being* and objects, we 
find tb<5 correspondence between Shin and Ling less ; and 
when we come to the quotations arranged under ;.he heads of 
X. light, and XI. the objects affording it, with XII. celestial 
signs and XIIL fabulous animals, the correspondence be- 
tween Shin and Lir-g ceases altogether. 

We have only now to ask the reader to take the definitions 
of spirit given by the best theological and philological writers, 
at the head of thi3 article, and comparing them with the 
meanings attached to jjjlp Shin, in the voluminous Chinese 
Thesaurus, see whether the correspondence is not thorough 
and striking. Then Jet him take the meauings attached to 
Hg Ling, in the same Thesaurus, and comparing them with 
the above-named definitions of spirit, see how rare and feeble 
the resemblances are ; Li»g, in fact, conveying the idea in- 
dicated by the word spirit only in the concrete sense, of 
invisible intelligences, and failing to represent that term 
when employed to denote the spirits of such invisible intelli- 
gences. From this will be seen what a miserable choice 
those have made, who in order to establish their practice of 
using Shin for God. have abandoned that term in the sense 
of spirit, and adopted one which is far inferior to it, in the 
sense intended. 

Having thu* gone through almost ail the quotations ad- 
duced in the Chinese Imperial Thesaurus, under the terms 

Jf$| Shin and §J Ling, we shall now take up the New Tes- 
tament usages of Pneuma in particular, according to the 
method pursued by Robinson, in his lexicon, and see which 
of the Chinese terms proposed are most applicable. 



50 

I. Pneuma is used for breath of atr. 

1. Wind : as in Joha iii. 18. The wind bloweth where 
it listeth. la this passage, all translators of the Scriptures 
have agreed in rendering Pneuma by a word signifying wind.. 
We follow their example, and propose J^ fung, the common 
Chinese word for wind. Hebrews i. 7. may be referred to this- 
category. 

2. Breath of the mouth : as in 2 Thessalonians ii. 8, the 
spirit of his mouth ; and Revelation xi. 11, the spirit of life. 
In these passages, we conceive, that the meaning of the sacred 
writer would be best expressed by ^ k'he, which is one of 
the correlates of >f|fl shin. ^ k'he, we are told, is the ful- 
ness of the ftp shin : (see Inquiry, pages 91, 1 10) : and Choo- 
foo-tsze says, that the j^ f$ kwei shin is nothing more 
than the ^ k'he : (see ib. page 100.) 

II. Pneuma is used for spirit, in the abstract. 

1. The vital spirit. Matthew xxvii. 50. Yielded up the 
ghost ; James ii. 26. The body without the spirit is dead. In 
these passages also,^ k'he would be most suitable; for Kang- 

he says, that g*fj k'he is the origin of life : see Inquiry, page 90. 
But in the following passages, as Acts vii. 59. Receive my 
spirit ; Luke viii. 55. Her spirit came again, (where the soul, 
as the principle of life, is intended) ; Revelation xiii. 15. Give 
life to the image ; John vi. 63. My words are spirit and life ; 
with 1 Corinthians xv. 45. A quickening spirit— it appears 
to US; that fj$ Shin would best represent the Pneuma of the 

sacred writers. See our first quotations under jjfp Shin, 
page 4, taken from 165 and 130 of the Thesaurus. 

2. Pneuma is used for the rational spirit* 
a. Soul as opposed to the body. 

1 Thessalonians v. 23. Spirit, soul, and body. Romans viii. 
10. The body is dead, but the spirit is life. 1 Corinthians 
v. 3, 4. Absent in body, but present in spirit. 1 Corin- 
thians v. 5. For the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit 
may be saved. 1 Corinthians vi. 20. In your body and in 
your spirit, which are God's. 1 Corinthians vii. 34. Holy 
both in body and inspirit. Colossians ii. 5. Absent in 
the flesh and with you in spirit. I Peter iv. 6. Judged in 
the flesh, and live in the spirit. Hebrews xii. 9. Fathers 
of our flesh, and the Father of our spirits. 

In all the above instances, where spirit is antithetical *o 



51 

flesh, the most appropriate mode of tendering it would be 

by fpji Shin, according to the examples adduced under the 
antitheses of Shin ; see page 6, 7, of the present pamphlet. 

We feel persuaded, that those who advocate §^i Ling in the 
sense of spirit, cannot produce examples, equally numerous 
and strong, of its being contrasted wih body. 

b. Soul in connection with spirit. 

Hebrews 4 : 12. Piercing even to the soul and spirit. 
Luke 1 : 47. My soul doth magnify, my spirit hath rejoiced. 
In these passages tfjtf Shin would most faithfully represent 
Pneuma ; in conformity with the examples, 3Sos. 95 92 and 
31, in the Thesaurus ; see p.p. 4, 9 : where J\^ Sin and 
^ Shin are conjoined and interchanged. With respect 

to man, it is said, 2^ 3j^ ffij fi^ the soul and finer spirit 
constitute his Shin, see page 7, of this pamphlet. 

c. Our spirits are sometimes spoken of in connection with 
the spirit and spirituality of God. 

Philippians hi. 3. We worship God in the spirit. 

John iv. 23, 24. God is a spirit, and they that worship 

him, must worship him in spirit and in truth. 
Romans viii. 16. The Spirit itself beareth witness with 

our spirits. 
In the above passages, the connection requires that the 
same term be used for spirit, with reference both to God 

and man ; we have seen that ijjlfi Shin is used for spiritual 
beings as well as for the spirits of such beings : what more 
suitable term, therefore, for Pneuma in this connection than 

Shin. Should any contend, that gjg Ling ought to stand 
for Pneuma^ in the phrase " God is a spirit," we reply, that 
according to the examples adduced, under the fourth head in 
the analysis of Ling, that term means an intelligent being, 
not necessarily invisible ; and to say that God is a Ling, 
would be saying no more of him than is said of every indivi- 
dual of the human race, viz. that he is an intelligent being ; 
and to say that we must worship him in Ling, would only 
convey the idea that we must do it in an intelligent manner. 
See page 27-29. 

3. Pneuma is used for the soul, as the seat of the affections. 

a. Where the mind is refreshed : as 

1 Corinthians xvi. 18. They have refreshed my spirit. 



52 

2 Corinthians vii. 13. His spirit was refreshed ; and 2 Co- 
rinthians ii. 13. I had no rest in my spirit. 
6. Where joy is imparted to the soul. 

Luke x. 21. Rejoiced in spirit. 
c. Where grief is experienced, 

Mark viii. 12. Sighed in spirit, John xi. 33. Groaned in 

spirit. John xiii. 21. Troubled in spirit. Acts xvii. 16. 

His spirit was stirred. 

In ali the above cases, under a. b } and c, we admit, that 

the most appropriate mode of rendering Pneuma would be 

by J\j> sin. the heart ; here, there is no question whether 

JP$ Shin or §£ Ling, should be employed, as they would 
both be inappropriate : the latter, however, much more than 
the former. 

4. Pneuma is used for the disposition and feeling. 

Lukeix. 55. Te know not what manner of spirit ye are of. 
Romans viii. 15. Spirit of bondage. Romans xi. 8. Spirit 
of slumber. 1 Corinthians iv. 21. and Gaiatians vi. I. 
Spirit of meekness. 1 Peter iii. 4 Meek and quiet spi» 
rit. Matthew v. 3. Poor iw spirit. 2 Corinthians iv. 
13. Spirit of faith. 2 Timothy i. 7. Spirit of fear. PhiL 
i. 27. In one spirit. 2 Cor. xii. 18. Walk in the same 
spirit. 

In all the above we admit, that jtj) sin, the heart, would 
also correspond best to the idea of the sacred writers ; but 

|y sltin and iQ sin are correlates, as we have seen, 

page 9. 
Under the head of Pneuma in the sense of disposition, 

Robinson includes the following: 

James iv. 5. The spirit that dwelleth in us. 2 Corinthians 
xi. 4. Receive another spirit. Philipians ii. 1. Fellow, 
ship of the spirit. 
Here we conceive, that jftjjl Shin is most appropriate, while 

Hf Ling would be wholly inapplicable. 
5. Pneuma is used for the will, counsel, and purpose ; as 

Matthew xxvi. 41. Mark xiv. 38. The spirit is willing. 

Acts xviii. 5. Pressed in spirit, xix.21. Purposed in spirit. 

Acts sx. 22. Bound in spirit. 
In the above instances, pneuma might be rendered by J\j) 

the heart, or ^ e, the intention, which terms are correlate 



53 

with Shin. See p. 9, 10. We need scarcely add, that §g| 
Ling would be entirely inappropriate. 

6. Pneuma is used for the understanding, 

Mark ii. 8. Perceived in hid spirit. Luke i. SO. ii. 40. Strong 

in spirit. In the first *of the above passages i§ sin, the 

heart, and in the latter two fp^jjl* tsing shin seems most 
suitable. 
1 Oor. it. IT. What man knoweth the things of a man, 
save the spirit of a man, which is in him? so also the 
things of God knoweth no man, but the spirit of God. In 
this passage we contend, that the same terra should be 
employed for the spirit of a man, as for the Spirit of God ; 

but for the spirit of God, ||§ Ling could not be employed ; 
as Ling, when used as an adjunct of a being, refers to an 

attribute or faculty of that being. fql S!»in ; however, con- 
veys the notion of the spirit of that being ; hence Shin 
would convey all that the sacred writer intended in the 
one case, as well as the other. 
1 Cor. ii. 12. Now we have received, not the spirit of the 
world : but the spirit which is of God. Here also the same 

term must be employed in both instances. But ?£g Ling 
cannot be used for the spirit of the world, because Pneuma 
is here employed by Paul in a bad sense, while one of 
the meanings attached to Ling is good, virtuous, &c. Shin, 
on the contrary, can be used both for the corrupt influence 
of the world, and for the good spirit of God. 
The following instance occurs of Pneuma in connection 
with nous, Ephesians iv. 23. Be renewed in the spirit of 
your mind. Where the con.- ction of the two Greek words 
would be most appro priateW expressed by the junction 

of the Chinese terms i\j> sin and fljl Shin. See No. 96, 
on page 9. 

III. Pneuma is used for spirit in the concrete. 

1. It is spoken of created spirits : as 

a. The human spirit, after its departure from the body. 
Hebrews 12 : 23. The spirits of iust men made perfect. 
1 Peter 3 : 19. The spirits in prison. Acts 23 : 8, 9. 
Neither angel nor spirit. 

In the above, instances, the prevailing idea is that of the 
human spirit existing in a separate state ; which the Chi- 
nese express by jjj^ shin. See under the head ' Manes', 



54 

page 11 : to which we may add, J>£ 3; ^ f^ the Shin of 
Wan -wang, which after his death, ascended and descen- 
ded in the presence of the Supreme. See Theology of the 
Chinese, page 218. Inquiry, page 51. 

b. The soul of a person re-appearing after death ; a ghost. 
Luke 24 : 37, a spirit hath not flesh and bones. 

Here the antithesis of spirit to body, would point out the 

propriety of employing the term jjj$ Shin, which the 
Chinese use to denote what is not corporeal. The suppos- 
ed appearance of a disembodied spirit is referred to, in the 
Theology of the Chinese p.p. 153, 179 ; and Inquiry, page 
110, See also page 15, of thi3 pamphlet, under ghosts 
and spectres ; one says that when men are put to a violent 
death, their ghosts are disturbed, but after a time their 
^ spirits are allayed. Inquiry, page 115. 

c. Spiritual beings, in an evil sense; without any adjunct. 
Matthew 8 : 16. He cast out the spirits with his word. 
Mark 9 : 20. The spirit tare him. Luke 9 : 39. Lo ! a 
spirit taketh him. 10 : 20. Marvel not that the spirits 
are subject unto you. Ephesians 2 : 2. The spirit 
that now worketh in the children of disobedience. 

In translating Pneuma, in the above passages, the most ap- 
propriate term we can find is |^( Shin ; which is used 
with reference to a class of spiritual beings, not necessarily 
good, and sometimes evil, who occasionally trouble man- 
kind with their mischievous influences. A reference to 
these may be seen in page 115 of the Inquiry, where on 
being asked, " why so many jjj$ spirits were appearing 1 a 

philosopher replied, that flfl |j^? spirits and hobgoblins 
were vague and uncertain things, seeming as if they were, 
and yet as if they were not, hence the sages forbore to speak 
of them." 
We have a reference to ^cfi$ yuh-shin, the spirit of pestilence, 
called also<j|£j|| wan-kwei, the demon of pestilence ; see In- 
quiry, page 117 ; to jj^ f$ yaou-shin, mischievous sprites, 
and toJflt ffi han-shin, the spirit of drought, which was 
^fH ^cl^f a devilish and monstrous thing. See Inquiry, 
p. 110. These are spoken of as being expelled by exorcising. 
The ceremonies for f|§ |$ exorcising spirits were used 
for the purpose of ^ j^) ^§ expelling evil influences. 



55 

Iu Mark 5 : 8, 13, and elsewhere in the New Test, the word 
Pneumata, in the sense of evil spirits, is interchanged with 
Daimonia, where the reference is evidently to the same 
thing. In Chinese books we find jjj$ Shin and -^ Kwei 
thus interchanged, when speaking of spiritual beings of a 
mischievous kind ; in this respect the words in the two 
languages exactly correspond. See Inquiry, p. p. 106, 
108, 117. 

d. Evil spirits, or Pneu?no i with adjuncts. Such as Pneu- 
main akatkarta^ unclean spirits. 

Matthew 10 : 1. 12 : 43. Mark I : 23, 26, 27. 3:11, 
30. 5 : 2, 8, 13. 6 : 7. 7 : 25. 9 : 25. Luke 4 : 36. 
6: 18. 8: 29. 9: 42. Acts 5 : 16. 8 : 7. Revela- 
tion 16 : 13. 18 : 2. 

Pneumata ponera, evil spirits. 

Acts. 19 : 12, 13, 15, 16. Matthew. 12 : 45. Luke. 7 : 
21. 8:2. 11: 26. 

In all the above passages, the word ^ Shin may be legiti- 
mately employed, as that term occurs in Chinese writers 
in the following combinations ; S§| ^p go-shin, evil spirits, 

No. 77 ; jS flfl mang-shin y fierce spirits ; fjlj jjjljl le-shin, 
mischievous spirits, 114. In order to express the idea 
conveyed by the sacred writers, in the passages above 

quoted, the Chinese tell us, that ||| Ling cannot be 

employed: as that term conveys rather a good meaning. 
The following passages also occur : 

Luke 4: 33. The spirit of an unclean devil. 

Revelation 16 : 14. The spirits of devils. 
These phrases might, we conceive, be represented in Chinese 

by jq ^ $fi the spirits of demons ; an instance of such 

a use of the word occurs in the cj ]^C W 3^ Kob-wan- 
mei-tseuen, section 20, page 9; where a list of temples is 
enumerated, among which is one dedicated to a general 

of the ancient Jflfl Chow dynasty, who was considered 

Ml t$* M, *t* $¥ tne s pi" 1 °f a ver y small demon. 
There are a few other passages in which Pneuma occurs in 
a bad sense, as : 

Mark 9 : 17, 25. a dumb spirit, i. e. a spirit causing 
dumbness. Luke 13 : 11. a spirit of infirmity, i. e. a 
spirit producing infirmity. 
These .may be referred to the above category, and translated 
Wb Shin. 



56 

There is also one more. Acts 16 : 16 ; a spirit of divination ; 
or a spirit of Python. In which case j|fff Shin would be the 
most appropriate word to represent it : as the Kwei-shins 
among the Chinese are frequently spoken of with reference 
to divinations and prognostics. See Theology of the Chi- 
nese, page 46, 128,135. 

e. Good spirits. 

Hebrews 1 : 14 : Are they not all ministering spirits ? 

In rendering Pneuma in the above passage, we conceive, we 
should be complying with the usage of the Chinese lan- 
guage to employ jjff Shin, which refers to a class of spiri- 
tual beings subject to the Supreme ; as in the following 

extracts from the HI ^ ff§ f|C IESH Kwo-chaou-joo- 

lm-chfo-t-ifto 5 ± ^ & T ^ £ # W *P 3c ik 

i^MMif& T . he vari ° us s P irits are 

subject to the Supreme, and all receive the commands of 
Heaven to examine men's minds ; as the hundred officers 
are subject to the emperor, and al! receive the commands 
of the sovereign to manage men's bodies 
To the above passage in Hebrews, some add those in Reve- 
lations, which speak of the seven spirits before the throne, 
which they explain as referring to created spirits. Taken 
either in that sense, or in the acceptation of the spirit of 

God, the word f^ Shin would be equally applicable. See 
Inquiry, page 148. 

2. Pneuma is used with reference to God 9 as denoting his 

immateriality. 
John 4 : 24. God is a spirit. la this connection, we 

conceive, thatfp|i Shin is the most suitable term the Chi- 
nese language affords. So suitable indeed did this term 
appear to the unknown author of the Harmony of the 
Gospeig that tie 'has translated this passage 2^ J§ ]|jlff 
The Liwd ia a spirit. See Inquiry, page 132. 
The word fi^ Shin it appears to us, would express as fully 
as any native term can do, the idea that God ia an invisi- 
ble immaterial bcitig. The use of the word f§ Ling in 
such a connection would imply that he was an intelligent 
being, and would convey no more idea of his spirituality 
than did the same term when applied to the four poets of 
the Sung dynasty. See page 29. 



57 

We cannot do better here, in order to shew that Shin is 
adapted to set forth the truth that God is a spirit, than copy 
what Morrison has given in his Syllabic Dictionary, as the 
meaning of the word ; " Every evanescent (or )j|| heu, un- 
substantial, not solid.) invisible, inscrutable, spiritual, opera- 
ting power or cause, is called Shin. ,, See also page 11 of 
this pamphlet. 

3. Pneuma is used for the Spirit of God ; the Spirit of the 
Lord ; the Spirit of Christ ; the Spirit of Jesus ; the Spi- 
rit of his Son; the Holy Spirit ; and the Spirit absolutely. 
In rendering Pneuma in 6uch connections, we do not 
see what term can be employed other thanjjj^J Shin, that 
would give anything like the idea intended to be conveyed by 
the sacred writer. For the use of Shin, to express the Spi- 
rit of the Supreme, we have sundry examples in the Chinese 

classics. Such as " Jt *fj? ^ |[l$ the spirit of the Supreme 
Ruler approvingly came down to enjoy the fragrance of a 
sacrifice" : Theology of the Chinese, page 222. So in the 

ritual of the present dynasty, *tff ^2 It tne Shin °f tne 
Supreme is supposed to come down when the music is played, 
and the incense offered, at the border sacrifice ; while the 
spirit of the Supreme is supposed to retire, when the sacrifice 

is concluded. Inquiry, page 47-51. But the use of ^g Ling 
to convey the idea of the spirit of God, would be wholly 
inadequate ; it would convey indeed the idea of the intelli- 
gence of the Divine Being, or of his efficaciousness in an- 
swering prayer ; but not of his spirit. 

Further, the word Pneuma, with reference to the Holy 
Spirit, or the Spirit absolutely, denotes in the New Testa- 
ment, not an attribute, or a quality, — not an abstraction or a 
mere influence ; but a real, intelligent, personal agent, pos- 
sessing in himself, 1. Infinite intellect. 1 Cor. ii. 10. The 
Spirit searcheth all things, yea the deep things of God. 2. 
Sovereign will and determination. 1 Cor. xii. 11. All these 
worketh that one and the self same Spirit, dividing to every 
man severally as he will. 3. Power. Luke i v. 14. Jesus 
returned in the power of the Spirit into Galilee. 4. Blas- 
phemy against him is a heinous offence. Matt. xii. 31. Blas- 
phemy against the Spirit shall not be forgiven. 5. He 
commands. Acts xi. 12 The Spirit bade me go. 6. He 
forbids. Acts xvi. 7. The Spirit suffered them not. 7. He 
speaks to his people. Rev. ii. 3. Hear what the Spirit saith 

H 



58 

to the churches. 8. He reveals. 1 Tim. iv. 1. The Spirit 
speaketh expressly. 9. He testifies. . Rom. viii. 16. The 
Spirit witnesseth with our spirits. 10. He obliges to duty. 
Acts xx. 20. I go bound in the Spirit. 11. He renews the 
heart. John iii. 5. Born of the Spirit. 12. He sanctifies. 
2 Tim. ii. 13. Through sanctification of the Spirit. 13. He 
aids in prayer. Rom. viii. 26. The Spirit helpeth our infir- 
mities. 14. He directs. Gal. v. 18. Led of the Spirit. 

In all the above passages, in which the Spirit is spoken of 
as a person, without adjunct or qualification, the term Ling 
would be inadmissible ; because that word, when standing 
alone, is not used of a personal agent. The passages just 
cited have been submitted to intelligent Chinese, accustomed 
to assist in the work of translating the Holy Scriptures, and 
the result is a unanimous opinion, that Ling cannot be used 
in such connections, so as to convey a correct idea of the 
meaning of the various passages to the native reader. The 
delegates engaged in the work of translation, have been in 
the habit of rejecting renderings, which in the judgment of 
experienced teachers are inappropriate or unintelligible ; 
because the object of the Missionary and Bible translator is 
to clothe their instructions and renderings, as much as possi- 
ble fe in perspicuous language ; if this test were applied in the 
present case, Ling would undoubtedly be rejected as a trans- 
lation of Pneuma. The same persons coincide in opinion, 
that if Shin were employed in the passages quoted, instead 
of Ling, the whole would be distinct and clear. 

We must not omit to mention the confusion which would 
be introduced into the statements regarding the doctrine of 
the Trinity, by the adoption of Ling for Pneuma. We have 

seen above that jjjtp Shin means spirit, and that j§g Ling 
means intelligence. It would very inadequately express 
the idea of the spirituality of God, if we were to say that 

W Jll B spirit is intelligence : but we should fail still 
more in conveying a proper idea of our meaning, when wish- 
ing to inculcate the divinity of the Holy Ghost, if we were 

to assert that fU ^ jj$$ intelligence is spirit. If we 
were to use Shin and Lmg, * in such connections, the Chi- 
nese would get the idea that we were employing terms nearly 
synonymous to explain one another ; but not that we wished 
to set forth the mysteries of the Christian faith. They 

already believe that }J$f spirit and ||g intelligence, are nearly 
allied ; the one being the quality , and the other the subject 



59 

in which it exists ; but they would not gather from the state- 
ments above alluded to, that God is a spirit, or that the 

Holy Ghost is God. Again, the phrase f $ ^ i§§ the 
intelligence of spirit, or ^ |||[ holy intelligence, would not 
under any ciicumstances convey the idea, that the Holy 
Spirit, was a real intelligent agent, distinct from the Father 
and the Son, and yet equally with the Father and the Son, 
a divine person. It is because of the imminent hazard there 
would be of representing the Holy Spirit as a mere quality, 
and thereby of undermining one of the most important 
doctrines of the Gospel, that we object so strongly to the 
employment of Ling as a translation of Pneuma. It is not 
merely because we wish to oppose the use of Shin in the 
sense of God, that we object to the employment of Ling for 
Pneuma ; but because we have been driven thus to object, by 
philological necessity, and by a sense of fidelity in the 
translation of the Scriptures. Our statements both oral and 
written, up to the time when we began to examine the mean- 
ing of Ling more accurately, will go to prove, that our pre- 
dilections lay the other way ; and that we were rather 
disposed, if we could, to coincide with those brethren who 
proposed some other term than Shin as a translation of 
Pneuma. But on enquiry and examination, we have been 
compelled to relinquish every other term, and fall back upon 
Shin, as the only proper representative of Pneuma, in the 
New Testament. Should this be attended with disastrous 
consequences, with regard to the adoption of Shin as a 
translation of Theos, we cannot help it, — we have only 
to do our duty, let the consequences be what they may. 
It may be, that some of those missionaries who have argued 
so perseveringly for the adoption of Shin as a translation 
of Theos, may be led, when they see its greater applicability 
to represent -Pneuma, and the utter inadequacy of other 
terms to supply its place in the latter sense, to relax their 
former advocacy, and taking refuge in the transferred term 
for Theos, adopt Shin for Pneuma* It may be also 

* In this, however, we are by no means sanguine. One of the 
advocates of Shin in the sense of God has said, " This word we must 
use to render Elohim and Theos , malgre all objections'" An- 
other says, " This is a simple matter of fact, to be determined not by 
arguments, not by long quotations from ancient works, though these 
have their use in illustrating the subject, but by the hearing of the 
ear." The holding of such lauguage, with reference to a question of 
philology, which can only be determined on the authority of standard 



60 

that the Directors of the Bible and Missionary Societies, 
seeing the danger connected with the employment of a term 
of so broad a signification as Shin for Theos, and of one so 
similar to it in one respect for Pneuma, may be led to hesitate, 
before they take any decisive steps in their adoption. Should 
such be the case, however, we wish it to be understood, that 
our object is no other than the setting what we conceive to be 
the true state of the case before both Missionaries and Bible 
Directors, leaving the responsibility of any steps that may 
be taken as a result of our representations to the parties 
themselves. 

Those who advocate Ling, as the most proper translation 
of Pneiirna, will probably publish their reasons for its adop- 
tion. We are persuaded, however, that they cannot bring 
any arguments to prove that Ling means spirit, which 
would not more forcibly attest that Shin means spirit. If 
they refer to the Chinese Dictionaries, they will find the 
lexicographers all explaining Ling by Shin. If they consult 
European sinologues, they will find them more strongly in 
favour of Shin than of Ling, in the sense of spirit. If they 
take the definitions of native writers as their guide, the pre- 
ponderance of their evidence, would be in favour of Shin for 
spirit. If they trace the term to its connection with the 
human spirit, and argue therefrom, that it may also be em- 
ployed for the spirit of God, they will find that Shin is used 
much more definitely for the mind of man j and in a variety 
of instances where Ling cannot be employed. Is Ling in 
some equivocal instances, U9ed for the soul 1 Shin is unmis- 
takeably so. Is Ling ever inscribed on the parental tablet, 
which is considered the seat of the spirit after its departure ? 
so is Shin, much more frequently, and almost universally. 
In short, it is more than probable, that had it had not been 
for the adoption of Shin as a translation of Theos (which we 
consider improper), no one would have thought of using Ling 
as a translation of Pneuma in the formulary of ' the Spirit 
of God'. 

The modern advocates of Shin in the sense of God, for- 
merly used that term for spirit, and continued so to employ 
it up to the time of their changing their minds. Among those 

works, utterly discourages those who may expect to produce conviction 
in the minds of their opponents. It shews that they have resolved 
on a certain course, in spite of evidence, and takes the matter out 
of the field of argument altogether* 



61 

who wish to use Shin as the translation of Theos> there are 
some who still consider Ling to be inadequate as a transla- 
tion of Pneuma, and who would, if left to themselves, prefer 
Jl?l fung, the common term for wind, to one signifying intel- 
ligence. From which we infer, that Ling is by no means 
the term which would at first sight recommend itself to any 
one's judgment as the best translation of Pneuma. 

It has been argued by those who advocate Shin as a gene- 
ric term for god, that if we deny that it bears that sense (as 
the Chinese have no other term equally extensive in that ac- 
ceptation), we deny in fact, that the Chinese have any gene- 
ric for gods. As a counterpart to this, we may observe, that 
if our opponents deny that Shin is the generic term for 
spirit, (as the Chinese have no other term equally extensive 
in that acceptation,) they deny in fact, that the Chinese 
have any generic for spirit. It is much more likely, that 
they should have a generic for spirits, than a generic for 
gods ; we have proved that Shin is the generic for spirits : 
and if as a result thereof it should appear that they have no 
generic for gods, we cannot help it. The Chinese, however, 
do not seem to want the latter ; they worship spirits gene- 
rally, in a subordinate sense, and with an inferior service j 
there is one being, however, namely Heaven, whom Morrison 
calls the unknown God of Confucius ; he is also called Shang- 
te, or Te ; these terms with them express the idea of God by 
way of eminence ; such a being is worshipped among them by 
the highest personage on earth, and with the highest honours, 
while he is appealed to by all in the seasons of the greatest 
need ; with regard to the worship of this being, the Chinese 
are a sort of monotheists ; the term by which they designate 
him is extensible to only a few others ; beyond these they 
have no genus of gods, so to speak ; they do not therefore 
need a generic term : if we want a generic term that shall 
equally designate God by way of eminence, and the whole 
turba Deorum, we must make one ; wa therefore transfer 
the term. 

The simple state of the case appears to be this : Shin 
means spirit, and Ling means intelligence ; these two terms 
in the concrete, when referring to invisible beings correspond 
very much to each other, and can be used interchangeably, 
as the words spirit and intelligence when taken in that sense, 
might be interchanged in English ; yet no one would ever 
think of substituting intelligence for spirit, in any other case 
than in such wherein they exactly correspond. Let any one 



62 

try the word intelligence in any of the passages where Pneu- 
?/ia occurs in the New Testament, except where it refers to 
good spirits, and see how it will read ; so he may be assured 
would Ling stumble a Chinese reader, if substituted for Shin 
in similar circumstances. Neither of these terms, again, are 
suitable as a translation for Theos, for though both the Shins 
and Lings are worshipped beings, and in that sense are used 
interchangeably by the Chinese, yet they are not to be con- 
sidered gods, even in the sense of heathen nations. The 
Chinese do not employ either of these terms to designate the 
Ruler and Disposer of all things, and consider the whole 
host of Shins, as well as Lings, to be subject to the great 
Ruler and Disposer, who is nevertheless himself a Shin ; in 
the same way that we account all the spirits and intelligen- 
ces of the invisible world to be under the government of God, 
while we do not deny tc him the attributes of spirituality or 
intelligence. In a certain sense God may be called the 
spirit or intelligence of heaven, and in such acceptation the 
expressions may be synonymous ; but let any one take the 
word spirit or intelligence (without the word heaven, or any 
other qualifying epithet), and use either of them in the place 
of the word God in any passage where the Divine Being i3 
spoken of absolutely throughout the Scriptures, and he will 
see how inadequate and revolting a sense it gives : so we 
again assert, would the word Shin, if similarly dealt with, 
confound a Chinese reader. 

In the course of the debate on this question, it has been 
urged, that as the advocates of Shin in the sense of spirit, 
contemplate using it in the kaf exochen sense, so the advo- 
cates of Shin as a translation of Theos, can use it in the 
leaf exochen sense, with the same propriety ; since Shin 
ha3 never been used by Chinese writers for the spirit by 
way of eminence, no more than it has for God by way of 
eminence. To this we would reply, that the cases are by 
no means parallel. The idea of the spirit by way of emi- 
nence is an idea peculiar to Christianity; the idea of God 
by way of eminence is common to all nations : we cannot 
expect therefore to find the one in heathen books, but we 
might fully anticipate meeting with the other. The Chi- 
nese have the idea of God by way of eminence, and they 
employ for the purpose of expressing that idea, the terms 
T'een (Heaven), Shang-te (the Supreme Ruler), and Te (the 
Supreme). But they never employ Shin for that purpose : 
and when it is so employed by foreigners, the Chinese object 
most strongly against it, as a violent misapplication of the 



63 

term, which according to the meaning thereof, it will not bear. 

jf$ Shin^ they say, is merely the 5^ K'he, spiritual energy, 

or the Jjg Ling, intelligence of heaven. We need not won- 
der then that we cannot find it used for God by way of 
eminence : the wonder would rather be if we did meet with 
it so applied. For us to U3e it in that sense, therefore, would 
not only be unusual, and a sense in which it has never been 
found, but objectionable, and a sense in which it could not be 
found, according to the proper meaning of the word. God 
kaV exochen in the S. S. implies the possessor of supreme 
authority, divine by way of eminence, including all that is 
essential to deity carried out to extreme perfection, and 
understood exclusively ; to express which the word Shin 
would be very inadequate. The spirit kaf exochen, when 
used of a person, denotes the immaterial being by way of 
eminence, possessing in himself all that is spiritual, and the 
immediate author of spiritual life in the hearts of Christians, 
but by no means the only spirit. To use the term Shin to 
convey this idea in Chinese might be unusual, but would 
not be incongruous or improper. It might sound strange in 
the ears of a Cninese to speak of the Spirit absolutely, but 
it would not be objected against, as unidiomatic. 

Before closing this paper it may be necessary to allude 
to a third term, viz. J|jJ fung, which has been proposed as a 
translation of Ruach and Pneuma, and partially adopted by 
Drs. Morrison, Milne and Marshman, in their versions of the 
Scriptures. See Inquiry p.p. 129-133. 

]![ Fung is thus explained in Morrison's Syllabic Dic- 
tionary : " The breath of nature is called fung ; the wind ; 
air in motion ; custom ; usage ; spirit ; temper ; feeling ; 
to scatter or disperse, as by the wind ; to diffuse instruction, 
or affect by example ; haste ; fleetness ; the sexual appe- 
tency among cattle; vulgarly used for insanity." 

Kang-he has quoted the following sentences in illustration 

of the meaning of Fung: " ^ J^ f|[j ||| $%} {ft, wind is 
that by which all things are put in motion.* Then follows 

_ * A writer in the Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII. No. 9, calling 
himself Philo, has mistranslated the above sentence and rendered it : 
" The producer of all things is fung, or spirit." We cannot ima- 
gine what authority Philo could have for rendering H/J tung, the 

producer : Morrison gives him no warrant for so doing. Mjl Tung, 
as an active verb, according to Morrison, means to excite or agitate ; 
not to produce. Philo tells us, the Chinese say, the word in ques- 



64 

a quotation from the philosopher jJJ; ^f- Chwang-lsze, who 

says « *J£ ^ W j| Mi ^ 41 Jl M, when the S reat fram e of 
nature breathes forth its breath, it is called JjK| wind."* Kang- 
he then quotes from the ^Bf [B] Ho-too, the following : <'|H 

^j ~?C i)2 ^ 152 tne winds are the messengers of heaven 
and earth. "f Another quotation brought forward by Kang-he 

tion means to produce, to bring into existence. We shall be obliged 
to him to shew us the Chinese lexicographer or commentator who 
so explains the word. Philo's object in thus rendering the passage 
is doubtless to exalt his fung into an intelligent agent, " who, he 
says, brings all things into existence." This appears more evidently 
in his synopsis at the close, where he says, with reference to this 
quotation, "spirit means, 3. the producer of all things; an active agent, 
from and by whom the Chinese conceive all things derive their 
existence." We object altogether to this mode of representing the 
sentiments of the Chinese, who do not conceive of the wind, as an 
active agent, from and by whom all things derive their existence. 
Grammarians tell us, that who is applied to persons and rational 
beings. Fung in the estimation of the Chinese, is without life and rea- 
son ; the use of the masculine or feminine relative, in connection with 
fung, is therefore improper. 

* With reference to this passage, Philo says, at the close of what 
he calls his philological diversions, that " the breath of the Great 
Unity, is the spirit that gives life to all beings ; it is a divine and 
all-pervading influence." The Chinese author, however, gives no 
sanction to this fancy, which is to be ascribed to Philo's own ima- 
gination. 

f Philo has quoted this passage also, and translated it, " the mes- 
senger of heaven and earth is spirit" ; because ^J she, when con- 
nected with |2| kwo, a nation, means a national messenger, or an 
envoy, Philo would argue that it is here a title of honour, equivalent 
to our word ambassador, and therefore implies an intelligent messen- 
ger. The passage adduced by him from the Psalms, if rendered as 
it ought to be, " who maketh the winds his messengers," would 
indeed correspond to the quotation from the Chinese author, in which 
case wind woul! be equivalent to fung, and messenger to she. The 
Hebrew poet, however, did not as we conceive, mean to say, that the 
winds are employed as intelligent envoys, but that they are used by 
the author of all to accomplish his purposes, as flames of fire are 
also his ministers. * When Philo goes on to say that " tha Chinese 
believe heaven and earth to be the chief of all their gods ; and the in- 
visible agent, of which we discourse (viz. wind), they regard as the am- 
bassador of these high divinities, — everywhere abroad exciting to life, 
and bringing into their proper forms all the myriads of beings that 
fill the universe," he has drawn entirely upon the resources of his 
own imagination, and laid fco the charge of the Chinese things which 
they kaow not. 



65 



is as follows : " f*|* g§ $j§ M J& 11 The s up*"°r and in- 
ferior principles of nature are agitated (as with gusts of 
anger), and wind is produced." From the explanation of 

meteorological changes contained in the Hf 5j|ft Urh-yay 



Dictionary, Kang-he quotes the following : « jgf M gjf ^ 



a St. sea «£#».& »»;££■«. a 

§& HI /^ 2§§ Wko tne southern wind is called the pleasant 
wind, the eastern wind is called the vegetative wind, the 
northern wind is called the cool wind, and the western wind 

is called the great wind". From theffl ^ eE Le-yo-ke is 
also quoted the following : « \ JJ $g ^ fjg ^ i§£ the 
eight winds follow a certain law, and are not irregular." 
Here an explanation is attached which intimates that the 
eight winds refer to the winds from the eight points of the 

compass. Kang-he then quotes a passage from the Jj-fr pjj 
^p ^ Sze-ke -levin-shoo, as follows : "The north-east wind 

is called j!|| JIH teaou-fung, or twig wind, and prevails at the 
commencement of spring, (when plants shoot forth twigs) ; the 
east wind is called JJJJ )§j! jp^ ming-shod-fung, bright and 
effulgent wind, and prevails at the vernal equinox ; the south, 
eastern wind is called the Jjtjf fj^j ||J tsing-mlng-fung, clear 
and bright wind, and prevails at the commencement of the 
summer ; the southern wind is called the ^ ^ king-fung, 
glowing wind, and prevails at the summer solstice ; the 
south- western wind is called ^ B& leang-fung, cool wind, 
and prevails at the commencement of autumn ; the western 

wind is called jffj g|| !^ ch'hang-ho-fung. the opening and 
shutting wind, and prevails at the autumnal equinox \ the 

north-western wind is called ]^C J§j M» puh-chow-fung, the 
incomplete wind, and prevails at the commencement of win- 
ter ; the northern wind is called the @^J5C kwang-mo- 
fung, wide wasting wind, and prevails at the winter solstice." 
The fj|j >C Shwo-wan dictionary has a sentence much to 
the same effect as the above, to which is added the following: 

" E fl & & $t & A 9 M H when the winds are 
agitated, insects are produced; hence it is, that insects pass 
through their metamorphoses in eight days ;" alluding to the 



66 

eight quarters from whence the winds corned To return to 
Kang-he, we have next the following quotation from the 
JlU HI Chow-le, ceremonies of the Chow dynasty : " By 
means of the twelve winds, they examined whether heaven 
and earth would be harmonious^ and pointed out the omens 
to be deduced from that which was unusual and discordant f 
the commentator here says, that " at the twelve periods, the 
winds blew into the musical pipes, by means of which the 
harmony of nature might be ascertained." In all the above 
quotations, the meaning attached to J^J fung, is that of 
wind, or air in motion. Whatever powers may be ascribed 
to it, they are all derived from a higher source; and, however 
employed, neither will nor intelligence is ascribed to it, 
further than attaches to the word wind in western languages. 
Kang-he then goes on to give another class of meanings, 
derived from and dependent on the original one ; such as "j^ 
to loosen and expand," quoting from the Book* of Diagram* : 
'* Wi i%k H* *§£ (nature) by means of the wind expands (or- 
ganic beings) :" also " @ ||£ swift as the wind;" in illustra- 
tion of which, we have a quotation from the ]/£ ySf Tsb- 

chuen, " $j$ ||§ Keo-che thrice encountered the troops of the 
Tsob country, and on seeing the chief, he dismounted, threw 
offlhis helmet, and avoided him, swift as the wind." 

The Lexicographer then says, that H^ fung means spJJ 
instruction; quoting from the Shoo-king : " 5f|J t^ fljf ]§ 
Wl k£ Mi Up distinguishing the good and discouraging the 
bad, establish for them the sound of instruction." J Another 

* The above passage is quoted by Philo, who says, " it is not 
clear in what sense the word fung is there used." We think it is 
very clear, and that there ean be no mistake about its meaning wind, 
and nothing else. The eight quarters from which the winds blow, 
and the names given to them, make this evident. In his summary, 
Philo gives as the meaning of the phrase under consideration ; " the 
spirit of the chief gods, heaven and earth, moving everywhere, com- 
municating life to all the myriads of animals, vegetables, &c." Here 
is another specimen of his groundless inferences, to which the Chinese 
author gives not the least sanction. 

f Philo has produced this quotation among others. We merely 
refer to him here, however, to notice an expression employed by him 
when commenting thereon. His words are : " Wind— or„ as the 
Chinese will have it, the spirit of the gods — renovates and gives life 






67 
quotation from the Shoo-king is also adduced, as follows ; 

within the four seas all look up to my virtue, it would be 
entirely owing to your instructions." The commentator 
renders the meaning of J^ fung here unmietakeable, explain- 
ing it by ^ instruction. A quotation is then adduced from 

the preface to the Book of Odes, as follows : " )^/2l^W *ui 
the beginning of instruction" ; which the commentator ex- 
plains by saying, that |Ki fung here alludes to the 
political instructions of the princes of the empire. 

Kang-he then couples J^ f^ fung siih together, in the 
sense of manners and customs ; adducing a quotation from 

the HI IB L^-ke, in which it is thus used ; " ^ ^ J^ 

fe* 5^ ~T* « 5P when we change the manners and reform 
the customs, the whole empire will be tranquil." 

Kang-he then brings forward jp^ fung, as the name of a 
disease, quoting the 2E flp Tsb-chuen, as follows : " §J 
5E£-^ 152 when the fung sickness * is excessive, it affects 
the extremities." The Jlj fung sickness is said to be both 
acute and chronic. 

The Lexicographer then tells us, that J§^ fung means ^ 

apt to stray ; and quotes the Shoo-king, as follows : " J^ 

T 3 -Hi S\ when horses and cows are at heat ;" which the 
commentator explains by saying, that " horses and cows 
being at heat, are apt to stray." Another passage is quoted 

from the >fe fil Tsb-chuen, to the effect, that « ffl ;§fc ^ 

H§ ^T* *^F* tS Jj+ vL ( tDe P^ ace * n question is so distant) 
that horses and cows, when at heat, would not wander so far." 

A commentator thereon remarks, " JH fung means to be 
given up to wandering ; when the male and female of quad- 

to all beings." This is very unfair ; all that stands for " the gods," 

in one passage quoted by him is /^ Jf5|| ta-kwae, the great frame of 
nature : and all that can, even in his own estimation, be construed 

as "renovating and giving life" is Mj] tung, to exeite or agitate. 
To extract such an idea as he has, therefrom, is most unwarrantable. 
The Chinese will not have it. But Philo will have it, that " wind 
signifies the spirit of the gods," whether the Chinese will have it or not. 
* Kheuuaatism or palsy. 



68 

rupeds lead each other away, it is called )|£ being at heat • 
at such times horses and cows are apt to wander, because 
the males and females urging one another on, give way to 
their straying propensities, and wander far away." 

Kang-he then adduces the word ]§f 4 fung, as forming with 
other words, the name of a country, of a place, of an office 
of a bird, of a scarecrow, of a weathercock, and of a plant ; 
in all of which there is little or no reference to the original 
meaning of the word ; we therefore pass them over. It is 
also used as a surname. 

Kang-he further tells us, that HJ fung is used in the sense 
of " infatuated," quoting a passage from the jjjtjj JS ^ 
Shin-e-king, which says, « that in the western region sphere 
is a class of persons, who, with dishevelled hair, run towards 
the east ; some call them $35 n* a dj others J§| silly, others 
qf^ extravagant, and others JU infatuated." 

Kang-he then gives the meaning of this character , when 
the tone is changed to ^ fling ; in which case it means to 
Insinuate ; quoting from the preface to the Book of Odes, 
Which says, " There are six kinds of strains in which these 
Cdes are written; the first is called Jj|j fling, and this strain 
£s employed when JJ J^t |§^ $Jj "J> superiors by their in- 
structions aim at reforming their inferiors, or when ~"p J^ 

J$£ 0} jfc inferiors by insinuations, seek to satirize their 
superiors. These insinuations are generally elegantly ex- 
pressed, but are intended to convey some sly reproof. Those 
who utter them are not to be considered as blameworthy, 
while those to whom they are addressed are put on their 

guard ; hence they are called J^ insinuations". The com- 
mentator on this passage says, " Instructions and insinua- 
tions are all couched in metaphorical language, without be- 
ing plainly expressed." 

The above, with the exception of a few ' quotations, io 

shew how $|| fung is read in poetry, and which are not ad- 
duced with the view of shewing the meaning of the term, is 
all that Kang-he gives under this character ; from which we 
gather, that the original and principal signification of J^Q 
fung is wind ; with this is connected the ideas of scattering 
and of swiftness, which are usually associated with wind in 
all languages. It is not unuauai, also, to give the name of 
wind to certain descriptions of disease, in other countries, as 



69 

well as in China. To wind, is also used by western writers 
in the sense of perceiving and following by the scent, which 

resembles in some respects the meaning attached to ^ fung, 
when male and female quadrupeds are led astray by each 
other's scent. The Chinese employ the word )|£fung, in the 
sense of instruction, possibly because of the influence which 
instruction has upon the mind, resembling that of the wind 
upon grass or trees, bending them in the direction in which 
it blows ; and their using the term under discussion in the 
sense of manners and customs, is not unlike the meaning we 
attach to air, when alluding to the manner or mien of a person, 
which is applied to manners or gestures, as well as features. 

Morrison in his Syllabic Dictionary, under ^ fang, has 
adduced several instances, in which that word is coupled 

with others ; such as ^ ^ fung-k'he, spirit, temper, or 
feeling ; and )J^ fl§ fung kin, air, spirit, general manner. 
Granting, however, that J§|] fung, in such instances, may be 
translated spirit, it is evident, that it is only in one or 
two of the senses in which that word is employed, equiva- 
lent to Nos. 5 and 8 of the definitions given by Johnson ; 
but how liltle adapted it would be to represent the general 
ideas attached to spirit, would appear evident by the 
slightest application of it to those purposes. Let any one 
attempt, for instance, to employ the word fung, to express 
an intellectual being, the soul of man, an apparition, in- 
tellectual powers distinct from the body, animal spirits, or 
anything eminently pure and refined, and he will succeed as 
well in conveying his conceptions to the mind of the Chinese, 
as he would to an English reader by the use of the word wind 
for the same purpose. Fung is never used by flte Chinese 
for the soul, or vital principle, for the rational spirit, for the 
animal spirits, nor for the spirit and essence of anything. 
It is not antithetical wiih body or matter, nor is it correlate 
with soul, mind, heart, thoughts, views, will, feelings, or 
disposition. Fung is never used for the manes of deceased 
persons, ghosts, spectres, spirits, invisible intelligences, fairies, 
genii, elves, or hobgoblins ; for all of which, Shin is employed, 
and in which senses, the term proposed as a translation of 
Ruach or Pneuma, ought to be found used. We might 
therefore presume, without inquiry, that ^ fung would not 
convey to a Chinese reader those ideas, which are intended 
to be conveyed, in those passages of the New Te«tament 
where Pneuma is employed. To make the matter more 



TO 

clear, however, we will just test the word in a few instances. 
In John iii. 18. the meaning intended to be conveyed by 
Pneuma is wind, and therefore would be well represented 
in^anyjanguage by the common word signifying wind ; but 
let any one, acquainted with Chinese, attempt to introduce 
/jKj fung into the following passages, and see what idea 
would be thereby conveyed to the native reader. 1 Cor. 
xv. 45. A quickening fung. 1 Thess. v. 23. Preserve 
your whole fung y and soul and body. Rom. viii. 10. The 
fung is life because of righteousness. 1 Cor. y. 3, 5. Pre- 
sent in fung : that the fung may be saved. Col. ii. 5. I am 
with you mfung. 

In all these cases the employment of the word )|J fung 
would be as unintelligible to the Ghinese as would the word 
wind in English. Should any one object, that we are here 
supposing an impossible case, for no one would ever think of 
employing fung in such instances ; we would merely remind 
him that Marshman has done so in his version : and every 
one who adopts fung as the usual representative of Pneuma % 
to be consistent, should do the same. We specify Marsh- 
man's version in particular, because he appears to have been 

more steadily attached to J§^ fung as a rendering of Pneuma 
than any other translator : although in most of the instances 
cited, both Morrison's and Marshman's versions correspond. 
We shall here quote a few passages from the latter, - and in 
so doing shall translate fung by wind, as we are fully 
warranted in doing ; wind being the first idea that would strike 
a Chinaman's mind, on meeting with fung in most of the 
following passages, and spirit the last. 

Rom. viii. 16. The wind itself beareth witness with our 
winds. 2 <?or. vii. 13. His wind was refreshed. 2 Cor. 
xii. 18. Walked we not in the same wind ? 2 Cor. xi. 4. 
If ye receive another wind. 1 Cor. ii. 10, 12, 13. The 
wind searcheth all things. Now we have received not the 
wind of the world, but the wind which is of. God. Com- 
paring windy things with windy things. 1 Cor. xiv. 15. 
I will pray with the wind : I will sing with the wind. 1 
Cor. xv. 44. It is raised a windy body : there is a windy 
body. 1 Cor. xiv. 32. The winds of the prophets are subject to 
the prophets. Bph. ii. 2. The wind that now worketh in 
the children of disobedience. Mark ix. 17. My son hath a 
dumb wind. Luke iv. 14. Jesus returned in the power of 
the wind into Galilee. Acts ii. 17 I will pour out my 
wind upon all flesh. Acts viii. 39. The wind of the Lord 



71 

caught away Philip. Mark i. 23. There was a man with 
an unclean wind. Acts xx. 22. I go bound in the wind 
to Jerusalem. Acts xxi. 4. Said to Paul through the wind. 
Rom. viii. 4. Walk after the wind. Rom. viii. 5. They that 
are after the wind do mind the things of the wind. Rom. viii. 
6. To be windy minded is life and peace. Rom. viii. 9. Ye 
are not in the flesh but in the wind. Rom. viii. 13. If ye 
through the wind do mortify the deeds of the body ye shall 
live. Rom. viii. 15 Ye have not received the wind of bon- 
dage, but the wind of adoption. Rom. viii. 23. The first 
fruits of the wind. Rom. viii. 26. The wind helpeth our 
infirmities. 1 Cor. ii. 4. In the demonstration of the wind. 
1 Cor. vi. 17. He that is joined to the Lord is one wind. 

1 Cor. xii. 4. Diversities of gifts but the same wind. 1 
Cor. xii. 9. The gifts of healing by the same wind. 1 Cor. 
xii. 10. The discerning of winds. 1 Cor. xii. 13. By 
one wind we are all baptized into one body, and have been 
all made to drink into one wind. 1 Cor. xiv. 2. In the 
wind he spealceth mysteries. 2 Cor. iii. 6. The wind 
giveth life. 2 Cor. iii. 8. The ministration of the wind. 

2 Cor. v. 5. The earnest of the wind. Gal. iii 2. Received 
ye the wind by the works of the law. Gal. iii. 3. Having 
begun in the wind. Gal. iii. 5. He that ministereth to you 
the wind. Gal. v. 17. The flesh iusteth against the wind. 
Gal. v. 18. Led of the wind. Phil. ii. 1. Fellowship of the 
wind. Col. i. 8. Your love in the wind. 1 Thess. v. 19. 
Quench not the wind. 1 Tim. iii. 16. Justified in the wind. 
1 Tim. iv. 1. The wind speaketh expressly : giving heed to 
seducing winds. 1 John iv. 1. Believe not every wind, 
but try the winds, &c. 

We must give Marshman credit, however, for discernment 
at the expense of consistency, inasmuch as he has not 
ventured to render Pneuma by fung in every instance. 
The employment of fung for Pneuma in the concrete, has 
appeared to him in some cases inadmissible, and he has 

very properly substituted jj{$ Shin, in such passages as the 
following : Luke xxiv. 37. They supposed that they had 
seen a jjj$ spirit. Luke xxiv. 39. A jjjljf spirit hath not flesh 
and bones, as ye see me have. Luke ix. 39. Lo ! a jjjtfl 
spirit taketh him. Luke x. 20. Rejoice not that the jjj$ 
spirits are subject to you. Matt. xii. 45. Seven other |^ 
spirits more wicked than himself. Luke ix. 42. Jesus re- 
buked the unclean ^ spirit. Heb. i. 14. Are they not 
ail ministering |tp spirits 1 



72 

Though dissatisfied with fung, however, Marshman has 
not in every instance been equally happy, in the selection of 
a substitute : for in Matt, viii. 16. Mark ix 20, Mark iii. 11. 
&c. he has curiously connected the words jf^ kwei and J|] 
fung together ; which combination gives something like the 
idea of demoniacal wind. In Matt. x. 1. he has, for unclean 
spirits, y§ !sl unclean souls ; and in Luke iv. 36. he has 
for the same, f§ ]|g unclean devils ; so that he does not 
appear to have been satisfied with any oi his renderings of 
Pneuma, but to have shifted about from one to another, like 
a man at a loss which to choose. 

With reference to the divine spirituality, however, he ap- 
pears to have been most at a loss ; for, aware as he must have 
been, that the passage in John iv. 24 if fung were employed, 
would convey to the Chinese mind nc conception at all of the 
divine spirituality, or ©f the worship due to God, he has 
adopted j||[ Ling for Pneuma ; but this, as we have already 
seen, would only teach the Chinese that God is an intelli- 
gent being, and must be worshipped in an intelligent manner. 
In those passages, again, where the Spirit of God, of the 
Father , or of Christ is spoken of, Marshman seems to have 

thought i§g Ling inadmissible, as giving only the idea of 
the intelligence or influence of the Divine Being. Still, not 

liking to trust entirely to the word J§J fung, to convey the 
idea of the sacred writer, he has adopted the formulary of 
W M[ Shin-fung, the spiritual wind ; and sometimes of 
Ijjg )J^ shing-fung, holy wind, or §5 ijj^l J|£ holy spiritual 

wind, where nothing but Pneuma is to be found in the 
original. This, however, a correct translator would not do. 
Either the word fung means spirit, in the sense in which 
Pneuma is thus employed, or it does not ; if it does, let it be 
used alone without any adjunct, and it will answer the end 
in view ; but if it does not, let the use of it be avoided, 
rather than seek to sustain it by props, which after all, only 
shew its weakness and insufficiency. 

We come now to the consideration of an objection that 
may be brought by the advocates of J^J fung, as a translation 
of Ruach and Pneuma ; that in the Hebrew Scriptures, the 
same word is used for both wind and spirit, and that inter- 
changeably, apparently without impediment or difficulty ; it 
is therefore presumed, that we could do the same in Chinese. 



(6 

To this we reply, ihat the employment of one term, and of 
one only, to express (he different ideas of wind and spirit, is 
a peculiarity of the Semitic, which docs not, obtain in other 
languages : and that, in every case where such peculiarity 
does not. prevail, it would be a forcing of the language, to 
employ .one term, to express both ideas, and involve the 
writing in obscurity. The Hebrews use the common word 
for wind in the sense of spirit, and have no other word Jor 
mind than the one which they are in the habit of using 
for spirit ; this is owing to the poverty of their language : 
a poverty which is to be lamented, as sometimes involving 
the sense in obscurity. 

Were we called upon to translate the S. S. into a lan- 
guage, in which the same peculiarity obtained, we should 
be obliged to adopt: but one term to express both ideas. 
This is precisely the case with the ancient Syiiac, which 
possesses only one word for wind and spirit. Hence in 
the Peschi to version Ruach is employed, wherever p?ieuma 
and auemos stood in the original ; and in the modern version 
of the New Testament into Hebrew, edited by Greenfield, 
the same course is pursued ; because the authors of the 
above-named works had no resource, but to represent both 
wind and spirit by the same word. In the Arabic language, 
however, which is of the same family, this peculiarity does 
not obtain : the Arabic, like the Hebrew, expresses spirit by 
ruach^ but it has a variety of words to represent wind, 
among the most common of which are had, hawa and rih : 
the latter of these has been selected by the authors of the 
two Arabic versions of the New Testament now before us, 
to render anemos. The Turkish, -which is distantly related 
to the Semitic dialects, employs ruach for spirit, and rou- 
ziguiar or yel, for wind ; hence the same distinction in 
the rendering of the two words may be kept up. 

The authors of the Septuagint version, in translating 
from the Hebrew into Greek, found one word (ruach) in (lie 
former language standing for two ideas, viz wind and spirit. 
In the language into which they were translating, there 
existed a variety of terms, by which these two ideas could 
be expressed. They found, that the former could be well 
represented by the Greek anemos, the common word for 
wind. The latter of the two ideas could not be expressed 
by the same term, so as to secure intelligibility ; and wishing 
perhaps to adhere as closely as possible to the figurative 
language of the original, they selected a term derived from 
breath and breathing, to express the sense intended (o be 



74 

conveyed by ruach, when referring to spirit and spiritual be- 
ings. This word was pneuma^ derived from pneo, to blow ; 
hence a blast of wind ; the air we breathe ; and (connected 
with other words), the breath of life; to collect breath; 
to give up the ghost, &c. ; it was used also by Polybius for 
life, and by Phoenix ap. Ath. for the spirit ; a living being ; 
as well as by Sophocles, metaphorically for spirit, feeling, &c. 
(See Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon, under the word.) 
In this respect, it assimilated in some degree to psyche : but 
having to use that term so extensively (about 660 times) for 
nephesh, soul, the Septuagint writers preferred pneuma, 
as the representative of ruach, in its more spiritual sense. 
Thus ruach has been rendered in their version, when the 
idea intended to be conveyed was wind 3 by anemos, about 50 
times ; while the instances in which the same term, occurring 
in the sense of spirit, has been rendered by pneuma, amount 
to 270. We may just notice in passing, that there are about 
twenty other modes of rendering ruach, adopted by the Sep- 
tuagint writers, which we do not think it necessary at pre- 
sent to dwell upon. The New Testament writers have 
generally followed the authors of the Septuagint, in the 
adoption and use of the above terms : i. e. they have not em- 
ployed one single term for expressing the various ideas which 
were represented by ruach in the Hebrew language; mainly, 
w© conceive, because they were not necessitated so to do, as 
the Hebrews were, by having only one term at their disposal : 
and because one term would not have answered the purpose, 
to express the twofold idea to the minds of those for whom 
they wrote ; except in John hi. 8. where there is a kind of 
paronomasia. They therefore divided the meaning of ruach 
into physical and metaphysical, taking anemos to represent 
the former, and pneuma the latter. All translators of the Scrip- 
tures, whether of the Old or New Testament, have (except 
where they were prevented by the necessity of the case, as in 
the Syriac and the modern Hebrew), done the same. Witness 
the Arabic, Turkish, Latin, French, Italian, German, Spa- 
nish, Portuguese, English, &c. which have all represented 
the two ideas of wind and spirit, by distinct terms. It is 
true, they have most of them employed a term, to represent 
spirit, by one drawn from the word to breathe, because per- 
haps they had no other term at their disposal. Were we 
called upon to translate pneuma into Chinese by a word of 
this class, we should select, not J|£ fung, but ^ k'he, which 
latter approaches more nearly to the Greek and Latin terms 



75 

pneo and spiro, than the former, see Inquiry, page 90. But 
^ k'he, though answering in this respect to pneuma, is not 
fit for our purpose, because it is never used in the concrete. 
Its correlate ftff Shin is ; and upon Shin, and Shin alone, 

DO WE FEEL OURSELVES COMPELLED TO FALL BACK, AS 
THE ONLY LEGITIMATE AND SUITABLE REPRESENTATIVE 
OF RuACH AND PnEUMA, IN THE SENSE OF SPIRIT AND 

Spiritual Beings. 



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^UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER. 




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